ChapterIII
CHANGINGTRADITIONS
TheThreeOrders
ChangingCulturalTraditions
ConfrontationofCultures
ChangingTraditions
We have seen how, by the ninth century, large parts of Asia and America witnessed the growth
and expansion of great empires – some nomadic, some based on well-developed cities and trading
networksthatcentredonthem.ThedifferencebetweentheMacedonian,RomanandArabempiresandthe
onesthatprecededthem(theEgyptian,Assyrian,Chinese,Mauryan)wasthattheycoveredgreaterareas
ofterritory,andwerecontinentalortranscontinentalinnature.TheMongolempirewassimilar.
Differentculturalencounterswerecrucialtowhattookplace.Thearrivalofempireswasalmostalways
sudden,buttheywerealmostalwaystheresultofchangesthathadbeentakingplaceoveralongtimein
thecoreofwhatwouldbecomeanempire.
Traditionsinworldhistorycouldchangeindifferentways.InwesternEuropeduringtheperiodfromthe
ninth to the seventeenth centuries, much that we connect with modern times evolved slowly – the
development of scientific knowledge based on experiment rather than religious belief, serious thought
about the organisation of government, with attention to the creation of civil services, parliaments and
different codes of law, improvements in technology that was used in industry and agriculture. The
consequencesofthesechangescouldbefeltwithgreatforceoutsideEurope.
Aswehaveseen,bythefifthcenturyce,theRomanEmpireinthewesthaddisintegrated.Inwesternand
centralEurope,theremainsoftheRomanEmpirewereslowlyadaptedtotheadministrativerequirements
andneedsoftribesthathadestablishedkingdomsthere.However,urbancentresweresmallerinwestern
Europethanfurthereast.
By the ninth century, the commercial and urban centres – Aix, London, Rome, Sienna – though small,
couldnotbedismissed.Fromtheninthtotheeleventhcenturies,thereweremajordevelopmentsinthe
countryside in western Europe. The Church and royal government developed a combination of Roman
institutions with the customary rules of tribes. The finest example was the empire of Charlemagne in
western and central Europe at the beginning of the ninth century. Even after its rapid collapse, urban
centresandtradingnetworkspersisted,albeitunderheavyattackfromHungarians,Vikingsandothers.
Whathappenedwascalledfeudalism.Feudalismwasmarkedbyagriculturalproductionaroundcastles
and‘manorhouses’,wherelordsofthemanorpossessedlandthatwascultivatedbypeasants(serfs)who
pledgedthemloyalty,goodsandservices.Theselordsinturnpledgedtheirloyaltytogreaterlordswho
were‘vassalsofkings.TheCatholicChurch(centredonthepapacy)supportedthisstateofaffairsand
itself possessed land. In a world where uncertainties of life, poor sense of medicine and low life
expectancywerecommon,theChurchshowedpeoplehowtobehavesothatlifeafterdeathatleastwould
betolerable.MonasterieswerecreatedwhereGod-fearingpeoplecoulddevotethemselvestotheservice
ofGodinthewayCatholicchurchmenthoughtfit.Equally,churcheswerepartofanetworkofscholarship
thatranfromtheMuslimstatesofSpaintoByzantium,andtheyprovidedthepettykingsofEuropewitha
senseoftheopulenceoftheeasternMediterraneanandbeyond.
The influence of commerce and towns in the feudal order came to evolve and change encouraged by
Mediterranean entrepreneurs in Venice and Genoa (from the twelfth century). Their ships carried on a
growingtradewithMuslimstatesandtheremainsoftheRomanEmpireintheeast.Attractedbythelure
of wealth in these areas, and inspiredby theidea of freeing ‘holyplaces’ associatedwith Christfrom
Muslims,EuropeankingsreinforcedlinksacrosstheMediterraneanduringthecrusades’.Tradewithin
Europeimproved(centredonfairsandtheportcitiesoftheBalticSeaandtheNorthSeaandstimulated
byagrowingpopulation).
ThePalaceofthePopes,inAvignon,afourteenth-centurytowninsouthFrance.
ThePalaceoftheDoge,inVenice,fifteenthcentury.
Opportunitiesforcommercial expansioncoincidedwith changingattitudesconcerningthevalue oflife.
RespectforhumanbeingsandlivingthingsthatmarkedmuchofIslamicartandliterature,andtheexample
of Greek art andideas thatcame toEuropefrom Byzantine trade encouraged Europeans to take a new
lookat theworld.Andfrom thefourteenth century (in whatis calledthe Renaissance’), especially in
northItaliantowns,thewealthybecamelessconcernedwithlifeafterdeathandmorewiththewondersof
lifeitself.Sculptors,paintersandwritersbecameinterestedinhumanityandthediscoveryoftheworld.
Bytheendofthefifteenthcentury,thisstateofaffairsencouragedtravelanddiscoveryasneverbefore.
Voyagesofdiscoverytookplace.SpaniardsandPortuguese,whohadtradedwithnorthernAfrica,pushed
furtherdownthecoastofwesternAfrica,finallyleadingtojourneysaroundtheCapeofGoodHopeto
India–whichhadagreatreputationinEuropeasasourceofspicesthatwereingreatdemand.Columbus
attemptedtofindawesternroutetoIndiaandin1492reachedtheislandswhichtheEuropeanscalledthe
WestIndies.OtherexplorerstriedtofindanorthernroutetoIndiaandChinaviatheArctic.
Europeantravellersencounteredarangeofdifferentpeoplesinthecourseoftheirjourneys.Inpart,they
wereinterestedinlearningfromthem.ThepapacyencouragedtheworkoftheNorthAfricangeographer
andtravellerHasanal-Wazzan(laterknowninEuropeasLeoAfricanus),whowrotethefirstgeography
ofAfricaintheearlysixteenthcenturyforPopeLeoX.JesuitchurchmenobservedandwroteonJapanin
thesixteenthcentury.AnEnglishman,WillAdams,becameafriendand
counselloroftheJapaneseShogun,TokugawaIeyasu,intheearlyseventeenthcentury.Asinthecaseof
Hasanal-Wazzan,peoplesthattheEuropeansencounteredintheAmericasoftentookagreatinterestin
themandsometimes workedfor them. Forexample an Aztecwoman – laterknown asDona Marina
befriendedtheSpanishconquerorofMexico,Cortes,andinterpretedandnegotiatedforhim.
In their encounters, Europeans were sometimes cautious, self-effacing and observant, even as they
frequently attempted to establish trade monopolies and enforce their authority by force of arms as the
Portuguese attempted to do in the Indian Ocean after Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut (present-day
Kozhikode)in1498.Inothercases,theywereoverbearing,aggressiveandcruelandadoptedanattitude
ofsuperioritytothosetheymet,consideringsuchpeopleignorant.TheCatholicChurchencouragedboth
attitudes.TheChurchwasthecentreforthestudyofotherculturesandlanguages,butencouragedattacks
onpeopleitsawas‘un-Christian.
From the point of view of non-Europeans, the encounter with Europe varied. For much of the Islamic
landsandIndiaandChina,though,Europeansremainedacuriosityuntiltheendoftheseventeenthcentury.
Theywereperceivedashardytradersandseamenwhohadlittletocontributetotheirsenseofthelarger
world.TheJapaneselearntsomeoftheadvantagesofEuropeantechnologyquickly–forinstance,they
hadbegunlarge-scaleproductionofmusketsbythelatesixteenthcentury.IntheAmericas,enemiesofthe
Aztec empire sometimes used Europeans to challenge the power of the Aztecs. At the same time the
diseasestheEuropeansbroughtdevastatedthepopulations,leadingtothedeathofover90percentofthe
peopleinsomeareasbytheendofthesixteenthcentury.
Timelineiii
(c.1300to1700)
TheperiodunderconsiderationwitnessedseveralmajordevelopmentsinEurope,includingchanges in
agriculture and the lives of peasants. It was also marked by a range of cultural developments. This
timeline draws attention to contacts between continents, stimulated in many instancesby the growth of
trade.Theimpactofthesecontactswasvaried–whileideas,inventionsandgoodsweresharedacross
continents,therewasalso constantwarfarebetweenkingdomstocontrol land,resourcesand access to
traderoutes.Asaresult,menandwomenwereoftendisplacedandenslaved,ifnotexterminated.Inmany
ways,thelivesofpeopleweretransformedbeyondrecognition.
ACTIVITY
You may have noticed that the column on Australia/Pacific Islands has very few
recorded dates.Thisisbecausethe peoplesintheseareasoftenusedotherformsof
recording, including paintings such as the one shown above*. List at least one
event/process from each of the preceding five columns which an Australian painter
mayhavefoundworthrecording.Listanotherfivewhichmayhaveseemedirrelevant
toher/him.
Theme6
THETHREEORDERS
Inthischapter,weshalllearnaboutthesocio-economicandpoliticalchangeswhichoccurredinwestern
Europebetween the ninth and sixteenth centuries. After the fall of the Roman Empire, many groups of
GermanicpeoplefromeasternandcentralEuropeoccupiedregionsofItaly,SpainandFrance.
In the absence of any unifying political force, military conflict was frequent, and the need to gather
resourcestoprotectone’slandbecameveryimportant.Socialorganisationwasthereforecentredonthe
control of land. Its features were derived from both imperial Roman traditions and German customs.
Christianity,theofficialreligionoftheRomanEmpirefromthefourthcentury,survivedthecollapseof
Rome,andgraduallyspreadtocentralandnorthernEurope.TheChurchalsobecameamajorlandholder
andpoliticalpowerinEurope.Thethreeorders’,thefocusofthischapter,arethreesocialcategories:
Christianpriests,landowningnoblesandpeasants.Thechangingrelationshipsbetweenthesethreegroups
wasanimportantfactorinshapingEuropeanhistoryforseveralcenturies.
Overthelast100years,Europeanhistorianshavedonedetailedworkonthehistoriesofregions,evenof
individualvillages.Thiswaspossiblebecause,fromthemedievalperiod,thereisalotofmaterialinthe
formofdocuments,detailsoflandownership,pricesandlegalcases:forexample,churcheskeptrecords
ofbirths,marriagesanddeaths,whichhavemadeitpossibletounderstandthestructureoffamiliesandof
population. The inscriptions in churches give information about traders’ associations, and songs and
storiesgiveasenseoffestivalsandcommunityactivities.
All these can be used by historians to understand economic and social life, and changes over a long
period(likeincreaseinpopulation)oroverashortperiod(likepeasantrevolts).
Of the many scholars in France who have worked on feudalism, one of the earliest was Bloch. Marc
Bloch
(1886–1944)wasoneofagroupof scholarswhoarguedthathistoryconsistedofmuchmore thanjust
politicalhistory,internationalrelationsandthelivesofgreatpeople.Heemphasisedtheimportanceof
geographyinshapinghumanhistory,andtheneedtounderstandthecollectivebehaviourorattitudesof
groupsofpeople.BlochsFeudalSocietyisaboutEuropean,particularlyFrench,societybetween900and
1300,describinginremarkabledetailsocialrelationsandhierarchies,landmanagementandthepopular
cultureoftheperiod.
HiscareerwascutshorttragicallywhenhewasshotbytheNazisintheSecondWorldWar.
AnIntroductiontoFeudalism
The term feudalism has been usedby historians todescribe theeconomic, legal, political and social
relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era. Derived from the German word feud’,
whichmeans‘apieceofland’,itreferstothekindofsocietythatdevelopedinmedievalFrance,andlater
inEnglandandinsouthernItaly.
Theterm‘medievalera’referstotheperiodinEuropeanhistorybetweenthefifthandthefifteenthcenturies.
Map1:WesternEurope
In an economic sense, feudalism refers to a kind of agricultural production which is based on the
relationshipbetweenlordsandpeasants.Thelattercultivatedtheirownlandaswellasthatofthelord.
The peasants performed labour services for the lords, who in exchange provided military protection.
They also had extensive judicial control over peasants. Thus, feudalism went beyond the economic to
coverthesocialandpoliticalaspectsoflifeaswell.
AlthoughitsrootshavebeentracedtopracticesthatexistedintheRomanEmpireandduringtheageof
theFrenchkingCharlemagne(742-814),feudalismasanestablishedwayoflifeinlargepartsofEurope
maybesaidtohaveemergedlater,intheeleventhcentury.
FranceandEngland
Gaul,aprovinceoftheRomanEmpire,hadtwoextensivecoastlines,mountainranges,longrivers,forests
andlargetractsofplainssuitedtoagriculture.
TheFranks,aGermanictribe,gavetheirnametoGaul,makingitFrance’.Fromthesixthcentury,this
regionwasakingdomruledbyFrankish/Frenchkings,whowereChristian.TheFrenchhadverystrong
linkswiththeChurch,whichwerefurtherstrengthenedwhenin800thePopegaveKingCharlemagnethe
titleof‘HolyRomanEmperor’,toensurehissupport*.
Across a narrow channel lay the island of England–Scotland, which in the eleventh century was
conqueredbyadukefromtheFrenchprovinceofNormandy.
*TheheadoftheEasternChurch,inConstantinople,hadasimilarrelationshipwiththeByzantineemperor.
TheThreeOrders
Frenchpriestsbelievedintheconceptthatpeopleweremembersofoneofthethree‘orders’,depending
ontheirwork.Abishopstated,‘Herebelow,somepray,othersfight,stillotherswork...’Thus,thethree
ordersofsocietywerebroadlytheclergy,thenobilityandthepeasantry.
Inthetwelfthcentury,AbbessHildegardofBingenwrote:‘Whowouldthinkofherdinghisentirecattleinonestable–cows,donkeys,
sheep,goats,withoutdifference?Thereforeitisnecessarytoestablishdifferenceamonghumanbeings,sothattheydonotdestroyeach
other…Godmakesdistinctionsamonghisflock,inheavenasonearth.Allarelovedbyhim,yetthereisnoequalityamongthem.
‘Abbey is derived from the Syriac abba, meaning father. An abbey was governed by an abbot or an
abbess.
TheSecondOrder:TheNobility
Priestsplacedthemselvesinthefirstorder,andnoblesinthesecond.Thenobilityhad,inreality,acentral
roleinsocialprocesses.Thisisbecausetheycontrolledland.Thiscontrolwastheoutcomeofapractice
called‘vassalage’.
ThekingsofFrancewerelinkedtothepeopleby‘vassalage’,similartothepracticeamongtheGermanic
peoples,ofwhomtheFrankswereone.Thebiglandowners–thenobles–werevassalsoftheking,and
peasantswerevassalsofthelandowners.Anoblemanacceptedthekingashisseigneur(senior)andthey
madeamutualpromise:theseigneur/lord(‘lord’wasderivedfromawordmeaningonewhoprovided
bread)wouldprotectthevassal,whowouldbeloyaltohim.Thisrelationshipinvolvedelaboraterituals
and exchange ofvowstaken on the Bible in a church. At this ceremony, thevassalreceived a written
charterorastafforevenaclodofearthasasymbolofthelandthatwasbeinggiventohimbyhismaster.
Thenobleenjoyedaprivilegedstatus.Hehadabsolutecontroloverhisproperty,inperpetuity.Hecould
raisetroopscalled‘feudallevies’.Thelordheldhisowncourtsofjusticeandcouldevencoinhisown
money.
Hewasthelordofallthepeoplesettledonhisland.Heownedvasttractsoflandwhichcontainedhis
owndwellings,hisprivatefieldsandpasturesandthehomesandfieldsofhistenant-peasants.Hishouse
was called a manor. Hisprivate landswere cultivated by peasants,who werealso expected to act as
foot-soldiersinbattlewhenrequired,inadditiontoworkingontheirownfarms.
Frenchnoblesstartingforahunt,fifteenth-centurypainting.
TheManorialEstate
A lord had his own manor-house. He also controlled villages – some lords controlled hundreds of
villages – where peasants lived. A small manorial estate could contain a dozen families, while larger
estatesmightincludefiftyorsixty.Almosteverythingneededfordailylifewasfoundontheestate:grain
was growninthefields,blacksmithsandcarpentersmaintainedthe lord’simplements andrepairedhis
weapons, while stonemasons looked after his buildings. Women spun and wove fabric, and children
worked in the lord’s wine-presses. The estate had extensive woodlands and forests where the lords
hunted.Theycontainedpastureswherehiscattleandhishorsesgrazed.Therewasachurchontheestate
andacastlefordefence.
Fromthethirteenthcentury,somecastlesweremadebiggerforuseasaresidenceforaknightsfamily.In
fact,inEnglandcastleswerepracticallyunknownbeforetheNormanConquest,anddevelopedascentres
ofpoliticaladministrationandmilitarypowerunderthefeudalsystem.
Amanorialestate,England,thirteenthcentury.
The manor could not be completely self-sufficient because salt, millstones and metalware had to be
obtainedfromoutsidesources.Thoselordswhowantedaluxuriouslifestyleandwerekeentobuyrich
furnishings,musicalinstrumentsandornamentsnotlocallyproduced,hadtogetthesefromotherplaces.
ACTIVITY1
Discuss social hierarchies based on different criteria: occupation, language, wealth,
education.ComparemedievalFrancewithMesopotamiaandtheRomanEmpire.
TheKnights
Fromtheninthcentury,therewerefrequentlocalisedwarsinEurope.Theamateurpeasant-soldierswere
not sufficient, and good cavalry was needed. This led to the growing importance of a new section of
people–theknights.Theywerelinkedtothelords,justasthelatterwerelinked totheking.Thelord
gavetheknightapieceofland(calledfief’)andpromisedtoprotectit.Thefiefcouldbeinherited.It
extended to anything between 1,000 and 2,000 acres or more, including a housefor theknightandhis
family,achurchandotherestablishmentstohousehisdependants,besidesawatermillandawine-press.
Asinthefeudalmanor,thelandofthefiefwascultivatedbypeasants.Inexchange,theknightpaidhis
lordaregularfeeandpromisedtofightforhiminwar.Tokeepuptheirskills,knightsspenttimeeachday
fencingandpractising tacticswithdummies.Aknightmightservemore thanonelord,buthisforemost
loyaltywastohisownlord.
In France, from thetwelfthcentury, minstrels travelledfrom manorto manor, singing songs which told
stories–partlyhistorical,partlyinvented–aboutbravekingsandknights.Inanagewhennottoomany
peoplecouldreadandmanuscriptswerefew,thesetravellingbardswereverypopular.Manymanorshad
anarrowbalconyabovethelargehallwherethepeopleofthemanorgatheredformeals.Thiswasthe
minstrels’gallery,fromwheresingersentertainednobleswhiletheyfeasted.
‘Ifmydearlordisslain,hisfateI’llshare,
Ifheishanged,thenhangmebyhisside.
Iftothestakehegoes,withhimI’llburn;
Andifhesdrowned,thenletmedrownwithhim.’
DoondeMayence,athirteenth-centuryFrenchpoem(tobesung)recountingtheadventuresofknights.
TheFirstOrder:TheClergy
TheCatholicChurchhaditsownlaws,ownedlandsgiventoitbyrulers,andcouldlevytaxes.Itwasthus
averypowerfulinstitutionwhichdidnotdependontheking.AttheheadofthewesternChurchwasthe
Pope.HelivedinRome.TheChristiansinEuropewereguidedbybishopsandclerics–whoconstituted
thefirstorder.Mostvillageshadtheirownchurch,wherepeopleassembledeverySundaytolistento
thesermonbythepriestandtopraytogether.
Everyonecouldnotbecomeapriest.Serfswerebanned,aswerethephysicallychallenged.Womencould
notbecomepriests.Menwhobecamepriestscouldnotmarry.Bishopswerethereligiousnobility.Like
lords who owned vast landed estates, the bishops also had the use of vast estates, and lived in grand
palaces.TheChurchwasentitledtoatenthshareofwhateverthepeasantsproducedfromtheirlandover
thecourseoftheyear,calledatithe’.Moneyalsocameintheformofendowmentsmadebytherichfor
theirownwelfareandthewelfareoftheirdeceasedrelativesintheafterlife.
SomeoftheimportantceremoniesconductedbytheChurchcopiedformalcustomsofthefeudalelite.The
actofkneelingwhilepraying,withhandsclaspedandheadbowed,wasanexactreplicaofthewayin
whichaknightconductedhimselfwhiletakingvowsofloyaltytohislord.Similarly,theuseoftheterm
‘lord’forGodwasanotherexampleoffeudalculturethatfounditswayintothepracticesoftheChurch.
Thus,thereligiousandthelayworldsoffeudalismsharedmanycustomsandsymbols.
Monks
ApartfromtheChurch,devoutChristianshadanotherkindoforganisation.Somedeeplyreligiouspeople
chosetoliveisolatedlives,incontrasttoclericswholivedamongstpeopleintownsandvillages.They
lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries, often in places very far from human
habitation. Twoof the morewell-known monasteries werethoseestablished by St BenedictinItaly in
529andofClunyinBurgundyin910.
Monkstookvowstoremainintheabbeyfortherestoftheirlivesandtospendtheirtimeinprayer,study
and manual labour, like farming. Unlike priesthood, this lifewas open to both men and women – men
becamemonksandwomennuns.Exceptinafewcases,allabbeysweresingle-sexcommunities,thatis,
therewereseparateabbeysformenandwomen.Likepriests,monksandnunsdidnotmarry.
From small communities of 10 or 20 men/women, monasteries grew to communities often of several
hundred,withlargebuildingsandlandedestates,withattachedschoolsorcollegesandhospitals.They
contributedtothedevelopmentofthearts.AbbessHildegard(seep.135)wasagiftedmusician,anddid
muchtodevelopthepracticeofcommunitysingingofprayersinchurch.Fromthethirteenthcentury,some
groupsofmonks–calledfriars–chosenottobebasedinamonasterybuttomovefromplacetoplace,
preachingtothepeopleandlivingoncharity.
ACTIVITY2
Discuss examples of expected patterns of behaviour between people of different
sociallevels,inamedievalmanor,apalaceandinaplaceofworship.
Theword‘monasteryisderivedfromtheGreekword‘monos’,meaningsomeonewholivesalone.
StMichaelsBenedictineabbeyinFarnborough,England.
InBenedictinemonasteries,therewasamanuscriptwith73chaptersofruleswhichwerefollowedbymonksformanycenturies.Here
aresomeoftherulestheyhadtofollow:
ABenedictinemonkworkingonamanuscript,woodcut.
Chapter6:Permissiontospeakshouldrarelybegrantedtomonks.
Chapter7:Humilitymeansobedience.
Chapter33:Nomonkshouldownprivateproperty.
Chapter47:Idlenessistheenemyofthesoul,sofriarsandsistersshouldbeoccupiedatcertaintimesinmanuallabour,andatfixedhours
insacredreading.
Chapter48:Themonasteryshouldbelaidoutinsuchawaythatallnecessitiesbefoundwithinitsbounds:water,mill,garden,workshops.
Bythefourteenthcentury,therewasagrowinguncertaintyaboutthevalueandpurposeofmonasticism.In
England, Langland’s poem, PiersPlowman (c.1360-70), contrasted the ease and luxury of the lives of
somemonkswiththepurefaithof‘simpleploughmenandshepherdsandpoorcommonlabourers.’Also
inEngland,ChaucerwrotetheCanterburyTales(seeboxbelow)whichhadcomicportraitsofanun,a
monkandafriar.
TheChurchandSociety
Though Europeans became Christian, they still held on to some of their old beliefs in magic and folk
traditions.ChristmasandEasterbecameimportantdatesfromthefourthcentury.Christ’sbirth,celebrated
on 25 December, replaced an old pre-Roman festival, the date of which was calculated by the solar
calendar.EastermarkedthecrucifixionofChristandhisrisingfromthedead.Butitsdatewasnotafixed
one,becauseitreplacedanolderfestivaltocelebratethecomingofspringafteralongwinter,datedby
thelunarcalendar.Traditionally,onthatday,peopleofeachvillageusedtomakeatouroftheirvillage
lands.WiththecomingofChristianity,theycontinuedtodothis,buttheycalledthevillagetheparish
(the area under the supervision of one priest). Overworked peasants welcomed ‘holy days’/holidays
becausetheywerenotexpectedtoworkthen.Thesedaysweremeantforprayer,butpeopleusuallyspent
agoodpartofthemhavingfunandfeasting.
*Amonkwhotravelstodistantshrines.
PilgrimagewasanimportantpartofaChristianslife,andmanypeoplewentonlongjourneystoshrines
ofmartyrsortobigchurches.
‘WheninAprilthesweetshowersfall
AndpiercethedroughtofMarchtotheroot
Andthesmallbirdsaremakingmelody
Thatsleepawaythenightwithopeneye
(SoNaturepricksthemandtheirheartengages);
Thenpeoplelongtogoonpilgrimages,
Andpalmers*longtoseektheforeignshrines
Offar-offsaints,reveredinvariouslands.
Andespeciallyfromeveryshire
OfEngland,toCanterburytheymaketheirjourney.’
GeoffreyChaucer(c.13401400),TheCanterburyTales.ThiswaswritteninMiddleEnglish,andtheverseisatranslationinmodern
English.
TheThirdOrder:Peasants,FreeandUnfree
Let us now turn to the vast majority of people, namely, those who sustained the first two orders.
Cultivatorswereoftwokinds:freepeasantsandserfs(fromtheverb‘toserve’).
AnEnglishploughman,sixteenth-centurysketch.
Freepeasantsheldtheirfarmsastenantsofthelord.Themenhadtorendermilitaryservice(atleastforty
dayseveryyear).Peasantfamilieshadtosetasidecertaindaysoftheweek,usuallythreebutoftenmore,
whentheywouldgotothelord’sestateandworkthere.Theoutputfromsuchlabour,calledlabour-rent,
wouldgodirectlytothelord.Inaddition,theycouldberequiredtodootherunpaidlabourservices,like
diggingditches,gatheringfirewood,buildingfencesandrepairingroadsandbuildings.Besideshelpingin
thefields,womenandchildrenhadtodoothertasks.Theyspun thread,wovecloth,madecandlesand
pressed grapes to prepare wine for the lord’s use. There was one direct tax called ‘taille’ that kings
sometimesimposedonpeasants(theclergyandnobleswereexemptedfrompayingthis).
Serfscultivated plots of land,but thesebelongedto the lord. Much of theproducefrom this had to be
given to the lord. They also had to work on the land which belonged exclusively to the lord. They
received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord’s permission. The lord claimed a
number of monopolies at the expense of his serfs.Serfs could use only their lord’s mill to grind their
flour,hisoventobaketheirbread,andhiswine-pressestodistilwineandbeer.Thelordcoulddecide
whomaserfshouldmarry,ormightgivehisblessingtotheserf’schoice,butonpaymentofafee.
England
FeudalismdevelopedinEnglandfromtheeleventhcentury.
TheAnglesandSaxons,fromcentralEurope,hadsettledinEnglandinthesixthcentury.Thecountrys
name,England, is a variant of Angle-land’. In the eleventhcentury, William,the Duke of Normandy*,
crossedtheEnglishChannelwithanarmyanddefeatedtheSaxonkingofEngland.Fromthistime,France
andEnglandwereoftenatwarbecauseofdisputesoverterritoryandtrade.
*ThepresentQueenofEnglandisdescendedfromWilliamI.
HeverCastle,England,thirteenthcentury.
William Ihadthelandmapped,anddistributedit insectionsto180Normannobleswhohadmigrated
withhim.Thelordsbecamethechieftenantsof the king,andwereexpectedtogivehimmilitaryhelp.
Theywereobligedtosupplyacertainnumberofknightstotheking.Theysoonbegantogiftsomeoftheir
ownlandstoknightswhowouldservethemjustastheyinturnservedtheking.Theycouldnot,however,
use their knights for private warfare, which was forbidden in England. Anglo-Saxon peasants became
tenantsofvariouslevelsoflandholders.
FactorsAffectingSocialandEconomicRelations
Whilemembersofthefirsttwoorderssawthesocialsystemasstableandunchanging,therewereseveral
processeswhichweretransformingthesystem.Someofthese,suchaschangesintheenvironment,were
gradualandalmostimperceptible.Othersweremoredramatic,likethechangesinagriculturaltechnology
andlanduse.Theseinturnwereshapedbyandhadaneffectonthesocialandeconomictiesbetween
lordsandvassals.Letusexaminetheseprocessesonebyone.
TheEnvironment
From the fifth to the tenth centuries, most of Europe was covered with vast forests. Thus the land
availablefor agriculturewas limited.Also,peasants dissatisfied with their conditionscould fleefrom
oppressionandtakerefugeintheforest.Europewasundergoinganintenselycoldclimaticspellinthis
period. This led tosevere and prolonged winters, a shortened growing season for crops, and reduced
yieldsfromagriculture.
Fromtheeleventhcentury,Europeenteredawarmphase.Averagetemperaturesincreased,whichhada
profound effect on agriculture. Peasants now had a longer growing season and the soil, now less
subjectedtofrost,couldbemoreeasilyploughed.Environmentalhistorianshavenotedthattherewasa
significantreceding of theforest line in many parts of Europe. This made expansion of the area under
cultivationpossible.
LandUse
Initially, agricultural technology was very primitive. The only mechanical aid available to the peasant
wasthewoodenplough,drawnbya
teamofoxen.Thisploughcouldatbestscratchthesurfaceoftheearthandwasunabletofullydrawout
thenaturalproductivityofthe
soil.Agriculturewasthereforeverylabourintensive.Fieldshadtobe
dugbyhand,oftenonceinfouryears,andenormousmanuallabourwasrequired.
Also, an ineffective method of crop rotation was in use. The land was divided in half, one field was
plantedinautumnwithwinterwheat,whiletheotherfieldwasleftfallow.Ryewasplantedonthispiece
of fallow land the next year while the other half was put to fallow. With this system, the soil slowly
deteriorated,andfamineswerenotuncommon.Chronicmalnutritionalternatedwithdevastatingfamines
andlifewasdifficultforthepoor.
Despitethesehardships,thelordswereanxioustomaximisetheirincomes.Sinceitwasnotpossibleto
increase output from the land, the peasants were forced to bring under cultivation all the land in the
manorialestate,andspendmoretimedoingthisthantheywerelegallyboundtodo.Thepeasantsdidnot
bowquietlytooppression.Sincetheycouldnotprotestopenly,theyresortedtopassiveresistance.They
spentmoretimecultivatingtheirownfields,andkeptmuchoftheproductofthatlabourforthemselves.
Theyalsoavoidedperformingunpaidextraservices.Theycameintoconflictwiththelordsoverpasture
andforestlands,andsawtheselandsasresourcestobeusedbythewholecommunity,whilethelords
treatedtheseastheirprivateproperty.
NewAgriculturalTechnology
Bytheeleventhcentury,thereisevidenceofseveraltechnologicalchanges.Insteadofthebasicwooden
ploughs,cultivatorsbeganusingheavyiron-tippedploughsandmould-boards.Theseploughscoulddig
muchdeeperandthemould-boardsturnedthetopsoilproperly.Withthisthenutrientsfromthesoilwere
betterutilised.
The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck-harness, the shoulder-
harnesscameintouse.Thisenabledanimalstoexertgreaterpower.Horseswerenowbettershod,with
iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for
agriculture.Morewater-poweredandwind-poweredmillsweresetupalloverEuropeforpurposeslike
millingcornandpressinggrapes.
Therewerealsochangesinlanduse.Themostrevolutionaryonewastheswitchfromatwo-fieldtoa
three-fieldsystem.Inthis,peasantscoulduseafieldtwoyearsoutofthreeiftheyplanteditwithonecrop
inautumnandadifferentcropinspringayearandahalflater.Thatmeantthatfarmerscouldbreaktheir
holdingsintothreefields.Theycouldplantonewithwheatorryeinautumnforhumanconsumption.The
secondcouldbeusedinspringtoraisepeas,beansandlentilsforhumanuse,andoatsandbarleyforthe
horses.Thethirdfieldlayfallow.Eachyeartheyrotatedtheuseamongthethreefields.
Withtheseimprovements,therewasanalmostimmediateincreaseintheamountoffoodproducedfrom
eachunitofland.Foodavailability
doubled.Thegreateruseofplantslikepeasandbeansmeantmorevegetableproteinsinthedietofthe
average European and a better source of fodder for their animals. For cultivators, it meant better
opportunities.Theycouldnowproducemorefoodfromlessland.Theaveragesizeofapeasant’sfarm
shrank from about 100 acres to 20 to 30 acres by thethirteenth century. Holdings which weresmaller
couldbemoreefficientlycultivatedandreducedtheamountoflabourneeded.Thisgavethepeasantstime
forotheractivities.
Someofthesetechnologicalchangescostalotofmoney.Peasantsdidnothaveenoughmoneytosetup
watermillsandwindmills.Thereforetheinitiativewastakenbythelords.Butpeasantswereabletotake
theinitiativeinmanythings,suchasextendingarableland.Theyalsoswitchedtothethree-fieldrotation
ofcrops,andsetupsmallforgesandsmithiesinthevillages,whereiron-tippedploughsandhorseshoes
weremadeandrepairedcheaply.
From the eleventh century, the personal bonds that had been the basis of feudalism were weakening,
becauseeconomictransactionswerebecomingmoreandmoremoneybased.Lordsfounditconvenientto
ask for rent in cash, not services, and cultivators were selling their crops for money (instead of
exchangingthemforothergoods)totraders,whowouldthentakesuchgoodstobesoldinthetowns.The
increasing use of money began to influence prices, which became higher in times of poor harvests. In
England,forinstance,agriculturalpricesdoubledbetweenthe1270sandthe1320s.
AFourthOrder?NewTownsandTownspeople
Expansioninagriculturewasaccompaniedbygrowthinthreerelatedareas:population,tradeandtowns.
Fromroughly42millionin1000,Europe’spopulationstoodat62millionaround1200and73millionin
1300.Betterfoodmeantalongerlifespan.Bythethirteenthcentury,anaverageEuropeancouldexpectto
live10yearslongerthanintheeighthcentury.Womenandgirlshadshorterlifespanscomparedtomen
becausethelatteratebetterfood.
The towns of the Roman Empire had become deserted and ruined after its fall. But from the eleventh
century,asagricultureincreasedandbecameabletosustainhigherlevelsofpopulation,townsbeganto
grow again. Peasants who had surplus grain to sell needed a place where they could set up a selling
centre and where they could buy tools and cloth. This led to the growth of periodic fairs and small
marketingcentreswhichgraduallydevelopedtown-likefeatures–atownsquare,achurch,roadswhere
merchants built shops and homes, an office where those who governed the town could meet. In other
places,townsgrewaroundlargecastles,bishops’estates,orlargechurches.
Intowns,insteadofservices,peoplepaidataxtothelordswhoownedthelandonwhichthetownstood.
Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from the lord’s control, for young people from
peasantfamilies.
ACTIVITY3
Look carefully at this map and the drawing of a town. What would you notice as
specialfeaturesofmedievalEuropeantowns?Howweretheydifferentfromtownsin
otherplacesandotherperiodsoftime?
Reims,Frenchcathedral-town,seventeenth-centurymap.
‘Townairmakesfree’wasapopularsaying.Manyserfscravingtobefreeranawayandhidintowns.Ifa
serfcouldstayforoneyearandonedaywithouthislorddiscoveringhim,hewouldbecomeafreeman.
Manypeopleintownswerefreepeasantsorescapedserfswhoprovidedunskilledlabour.Shopkeepers
andmerchantswerenumerous.Latertherewasneedforindividualswithspecialisedskills,likebankers
and lawyers.The biggertowns had populations of about30,000. They couldbe said to have formeda
‘fourth’order.
Thebasisofeconomicorganisationwastheguild.Eachcraftorindustrywasorganisedintoaguild,an
association which controlled the quality of the product, its price and its sale. The guild-hall was a
featureofeverytown;itwasabuildingforceremonialfunctions,andwheretheheadsofalltheguilds
metformally.Guardspatrolledthetownwallsandmusicianswerecalledtoplayatfeastsandincivic
processions,andinnkeeperslookedaftertravellers.
Bytheeleventhcentury,newtraderouteswithWestAsiaweredeveloping(seeTheme5).Scandinavian
merchantsweresailingsouthfromtheNorthSeatoexchange fursandhunting-hawksforcloth;English
traderscametoselltin.In France, bythetwelfthcentury,commerceandcraftsbegantogrow.Earlier,
craftsmenusedtotravelfrommanortomanor;nowtheyfounditeasiertosettleinoneplacewheregoods
couldbeproducedandtradedforfood.Asthenumberoftownsgrewandtradecontinuedtoexpand,town
merchantsbecamerichandpowerful,andrivalledthepowerofthenobility.
Cathedral-towns
One of thewaysthatrich merchantsspent theirmoneywas bymaking donationsto churches.Fromthe
twelfth century, large churches – called cathedrals – were being built in France. These belonged to
monasteries, but different groups of people contributed to their construction with their own labour,
materialsormoney.Cathedralswerebuiltofstone,andtookmanyyearstocomplete.Astheywerebeing
built,theareaaroundthecathedralsbecamemorepopulated,andwhentheywerecompletedtheybecame
centresofpilgrimage.Thus,smalltownsdevelopedaroundthem.
SalisburyCathedral,England.
Cathedralswere designedso that the priest’svoice couldbeheard clearly withinthehall wherelarge
numbersofpeoplegathered,andsothatthesingingbymonkscouldsoundbeautifulandthechimingbells
calling people to prayer could be heard over a great distance. Stained glass was used for windows.
Duringthedaythesunlightwouldmakethemradiantforpeopleinsidethecathedral,andaftersunsetthe
light of candles would make them visible to people outside. The stained glass windows narrated the
storiesintheBiblethroughpictures,whichilliteratepeoplecould‘read’.
‘Becauseofthe inadequacywhichweoftenfeltonfeastdays,forthenarrownessoftheplaceforcedthewomentorun towards the
altarupontheheadsofthemenwithmuchanguishandnoisyconfusion,[wedecided]toenlargeandamplifythenoblechurch…
We also caused to be painted, by the exquisite hands of many masters from different regions, a splendid variety of new windows…
Because these windows are very valuable on account of their wonderful execution and the profuse expenditure of painted glass and
sapphireglass,weappointedanofficialmastercraftsmanfortheirprotection,andalsoagoldsmith…whowouldreceivetheirallowances,
namely,coinsfromthealtarandflourfromthecommonstorehouseofthebrethren,andwhowouldneverneglecttheirduty,tolookafter
these[worksofart].
Stained-glasswindow,Chartrescathedral,France,fifteenthcentury.
AbbotSuger(1081-1151)abouttheAbbeyofStDenis,nearParis.
TheCrisisoftheFourteenthCentury
By the early fourteenth century, Europe’s economic expansion slowed down. This was due to three
factors.
InnorthernEurope,bytheendofthethirteenthcenturythewarmsummersoftheprevious300yearshad
givenwaytobitterlycoldsummers.Seasonsforgrowingcropswerereducedbyamonthanditbecame
difficulttogrowcropsonhigherground.Stormsandoceanicfloodingdestroyedmanyfarmsteads,which
resulted in less income in taxes for governments. The opportunities offered by favourable climatic
conditions before the thirteenth century had led to large-scale reclamation of the land of forests and
pasturesforagriculture.Butintensiveploughinghadexhaustedthesoildespitethepracticeofthethree-
fieldrotationofcrops,becauseclearancewasnotaccompaniedbypropersoilconservation.Theshortage
of pasturage reduced the number of cattle. Population growth was outstripping resources, and the
immediateresultwasfamine.SeverefamineshitEuropebetween1315and1317,followedinthe1320s
bymassivecattledeaths.
Inaddition,tradewashitbyasevereshortageofmetalmoneybecauseofashortfallintheoutputofsilver
minesinAustriaandSerbia.Thisforcedgovernmentstoreducethesilvercontentofthecurrency,andto
mixitwithcheapermetals.
Theworstwasyettocome.Astradeexpandedinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,shipscarrying
goods from distant countries had started arriving in European ports. Along with the ships came rats
carryingthedeadlybubonicplagueinfection(the‘BlackDeath).WesternEurope,relativelyisolatedin
earliercenturies,washitbytheepidemicbetween1347and1350.Themodernestimateofmortalityin
thatepidemicisthat20percentofthepeopleofthewholeofEuropedied,withsomeplaceslosingas
muchas40percentofthepopulation
.
‘Howmanyvaliantmen,howmanyfairladies,(had)breakfastwiththeirkinfolkandthesamenightsuppedwiththeirancestorsinthe
nextworld!Theconditionofthepeoplewaspitiabletobehold.Theysickenedbythethousandsdaily,anddiedunattendedandwithout
help. Many died in the open street, others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies. Consecrated
churchyardsdidnotsufficefortheburialofthevastmultitudeofbodies,whichwereheapedbythehundredsinvasttrenches,likegoods
inashipsholdandcoveredwithalittleearth.
GiovanniBoccaccio(1313-75),Italianauthor.
As trade centres, cities were the hardest hit. In enclosed communities like monasteries and convents,
when one individual contracted the plague, it was not long before everyone did. And in almost every
case,nonesurvived.Theplaguetookitsworsttollamonginfants,theyoungandtheelderly.Therewere
otherrelativelyminorepisodesofplagueinthe1360sand1370s.ThepopulationofEurope,73millionin
1300,stoodreducedto45millionin1400.
Thiscatastrophe,combinedwiththeeconomiccrisis,causedimmensesocialdislocation.Depopulation
resulted in a major shortage of labour. Serious imbalances were created between agriculture and
manufacture,becausetherewerenotenoughpeopletoengageinbothequally.Pricesofagriculturalgoods
dropped as there were fewer people to buy. Wage rates increased because the demand for labour,
particularlyagriculturallabour,roseinEnglandbyasmuchas250percentintheaftermathoftheBlack
Death.Thesurvivinglabourforcecouldnowdemandtwicetheirearlierwages.
SocialUnrest
The income of lords was thus badly hit. It declined as agricultural prices came down and wages of
labourersincreased.Indesperation,theytriedtogiveupthemoney-contractstheyhadenteredinto
andrevivelabour-services.Thiswasviolentlyopposedbypeasants,particularlythebetter-educatedand
moreprosperousones.In1323,peasantsrevoltedinFlanders,in1358inFrance,andin1381
inEngland.
Thoughtheserebellionswereruthlesslycrushed,itissignificantthattheyoccurredwiththemostviolent
intensity in those areas which had experienced the prosperity of the economic expansion – a sign that
peasants were attempting to protect the gains they had made in previous centuries. Despite the severe
repression, the sheer intensity of peasant opposition ensured that the old feudal relations could not be
reimposed. The money economy was too far advanced to be reversed. Therefore, though the lords
succeededincrushingtherevolts,thepeasantsensuredthatthefeudalprivilegesofearlierdayscouldnot
bereinvented.
ACTIVITY4
Read through the events and processes listed with dates, and connect them into a
narrativeaccount.
PoliticalChanges
Developmentsinthepoliticalsphereparalleledsocialprocesses.Inthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,
European kings strengthened their military and financial power. The powerful new states they created
wereassignificant forEuropeasthe economicchangesthatwere occurring. Historianshavetherefore
calledthesekings‘thenewmonarchs’.LouisXIinFrance,MaximilianinAustria,HenryVIIinEngland
andIsabelleandFerdinandinSpainwereabsolutistrulers,whostartedtheprocessoforganisingstanding
armies,apermanentbureaucracyandnationaltaxationand,inSpainandPortugal,begantoplayarolein
Europesexpansionoverseas(seeTheme8).
QueenElizabethIofEnglandatapicnic,latesixteenthcentury.
Themostimportantreasonforthetriumphofthesemonarchieswasthesocialchangeswhichhadtaken
place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The dissolution of the feudal system of lordship and
vassalage,andtheslowrateofeconomicgrowthhadgiventhefirstopportunitytokingstoincreasetheir
control over their powerful and not-so-powerful subjects. Rulers dispensed with the system of feudal
levies for their armies and introduced professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and siege
artillery(seeTheme5)directlyundertheircontrol.Theresistanceof the aristocraciescrumbledinthe
faceofthefirepowerofthekings.
By increasing taxes, monarchs got enough revenues to support larger armies and thus defended and
expandedtheirfrontiersandovercameinternalresistancetoroyalauthority.Centralisation,however,did
not occur without resistance from the aristocracy. A common thread running through all types of
oppositiontothemonarchieswasthequestionoftaxation.InEngland,rebellionsoccurredandwereput
downin1497,1536,1547,1549and1553.InFrance,LouisXI(1461-83)hadtowagealongstruggle
against dukes and princes. Lesser nobles, often members of local assemblies, resisted this royal
usurpationoftheirpowers.The‘religiouswarsinFranceinthesixteenthcenturywereinpartacontest
betweenroyalprivilegesandregionalliberties.
NemoursCastle,France,fifteenthcentury.
Thenobilitymanagedatacticalshiftinordertoensuretheirsurvival.Frombeingopponentstothenew
regimes,theyquicklytransformedthemselvesintoloyalists.Itisforthisreasonthatroyalabsolutismhas
beencalledamodifiedformoffeudalism.Preciselythesameclassofpeoplewhohadbeenrulersinthe
feudal system – the lords – continued to dominate the political scene. They were given permanent
positionsintheadministrativeservice.Butthenewregimesweredifferentinsomeimportantways.
Thekingwasnolongerattheapexofapyramidwhereloyaltyhadbeenamatterofpersonaldependence
and trust. He was now at the centre of an elaborate courtier society and a network of patron–client
relationships.Allmonarchies,weakorpowerful,neededthecooperationofthosewhocouldcommand
authority. Patronagebecame the means ofensuring such cooperation. And patronagecould begiven or
obtained by means of money. Therefore money became an important way in which non-aristocratic
elementslikemerchantsand bankerscouldgainaccesstothe court.Theylentmoneytothekings,who
usedittopaythewagesofsoldiers.Rulersthusmadespacefornon-feudalelementsinthestatesystem.
ThelaterhistoryofFranceandEnglandwastobeshapedbythesechangesinthepowerstructures.Inthe
reign of the child-king Louis XIII of France, in 1614, a meeting was held of the French consultative
assembly,knownastheEstates-General(withthreehousestorepresentthethreeestates/orders–clergy,
nobility,andtherest).Afterthis,itwasnotsummonedagainfornearlytwocenturies,till1789,because
thekingsdidnotwanttosharepowerwiththethreeorders.
WhathappenedinEnglandwasverydifferent.EvenbeforetheNormanConquest,theAnglo-Saxonshada
Great Council, which the king had to consult before imposing any tax. This developed into what was
calledtheParliament,whichconsistedoftheHouseofLords,themembersofwhichwerethelordsand
theclergy,andtheHouseofCommons,representingtownsandruralareas.KingCharlesIruledfor11
years(1629–40)withoutcallingParliament.Whenhewasforcedtocallit,becauseheneededmoney,a
sectionofParliamentdecidedtogotowaragainsthim,andlaterexecutedhimandestablishedarepublic.
Thisdidnotlastlong,andmonarchywasrestored,butontheconditionthatParliamentwouldbecalled
regularly.
Today,FrancehasarepublicanformofgovernmentandEnglandhasamonarchy.Thisisbecauseofthe
differentdirectionsthatthehistoriesofthetwocountriestookaftertheseventeenthcentury.
Exercises
Answerinbrief
1.DescribetwofeaturesofearlyfeudalsocietyinFrance.
2.Howdidlong-termchangesinpopulationlevelsaffecteconomyandsocietyinEurope?
3.Whydidknightsbecomeadistinctgroup,andwhendidtheydecline?
4.Whatwasthefunctionofmedievalmonasteries?
Answerinashortessay
5.ImagineanddescribeadayinthelifeofacraftsmaninamedievalFrenchtown.
6.ComparetheconditionsoflifeforaFrenchserfandaRomanslave.
Theme7
ChangingCulturalTraditions
Fromthefourteenthtotheendoftheseventeenthcentury,townsweregrowinginmany countriesof
Europe.Adistincturbanculture’alsodeveloped.Townspeoplebegantothinkofthemselvesasmore
‘civilised’thanruralpeople.Towns–particularlyFlorence,VeniceandRome–becamecentresofart
and learning. Artists and writers werepatronised bythe richand the aristocratic. The inventionof
printingatthesametimemadebooksandprintsavailabletomanypeople,includingthoselivingin
distanttownsorcountries.AsenseofhistoryalsodevelopedinEurope,andpeoplecontrastedtheir
‘modern’worldwiththe‘ancientoneoftheGreeksandRomans.
Religioncame to beseen assomething which eachindividualshouldchooseforhimself. Thechurchs
earth-centric belief was overturned by scientists who began to understand the solar system, and new
geographicalknowledgeoverturnedtheEurope-centricviewthattheMediterraneanSeawasthecentreof
theworld(seeTheme8).
ThereisavastamountofmaterialonEuropeanhistoryfromthefourteenthcentury–documents,printed
books,paintings,sculptures,buildings,textiles.Muchofthishasbeencarefullypreservedinarchives,art
galleriesandmuseumsinEuropeandAmerica.
From the nineteenth century, historians used the term Renaissance’ (literally, rebirth) to describe the
culturalchangesofthisperiod.ThehistorianwhoemphasisedthesemostwasaSwissscholar–Jacob
Burckhardt(1818–97)oftheUniversityofBasleinSwitzerland.Hewasastudent
oftheGermanhistorianLeopoldvonRanke(1795–1886).Rankehadtaughthimthattheprimaryconcern
ofthehistorianwastowriteaboutstatesandpoliticsusingpapersandfilesofgovernmentdepartments.
Burckhardt was dissatisfied with these very limited goals that his master had set out for him. To him
politicswasnotthebe-allandend-allinhistorywriting.Historywasasmuchconcernedwithcultureas
withpolitics.
In 1860, he wrote a book called The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy, in which he called his
readers’attentiontoliterature,architectureandpaintingtotellthestoryofhowanew‘humanistculture
hadfloweredinItaliantownsfromthefourteenthtotheseventeenthcentury.Thisculture,hewrote,was
characterisedbyanewbelief–thatman,asanindividual,wascapableofmakinghisowndecisionsand
developinghisskills.Hewas‘modern,incontrastto‘medievalmanwhosethinkinghadbeencontrolled
bythechurch.
TheRevivalofItalianCities
AfterthefallofthewesternRomanEmpire,manyofthetownsthathadbeenpoliticalandculturalcentres
inItalyfellintoruin.Therewasnounifiedgovernment,andthePopeinRome,whowassovereigninhis
ownstate,wasnotastrongpoliticalfigure.
While western Europe was being reshaped by feudal bonds and unified under the Latin Church, and
easternEuropeundertheByzantineEmpire,andIslamwascreatingacommoncivilisationfurtherwest,
Italywasweakandfragmented.However,itwastheseverydevelopmentsthathelpedintherevivalof
Italianculture.
With the expansion of trade between the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic countries, the ports on the
Italiancoastrevived.Fromthetwelfthcentury,astheMongolsopeneduptradewithChinaviatheSilk
Route(seeTheme5)andastradewithwesternEuropeancountriesalsoincreased,Italiantownsplayeda
centralrole.
Map1:TheItalianStates
Theynolongersawthemselvesaspartofapowerfulempire,butasindependentcity-states.Twoofthese
–FlorenceandVenice–wererepublics,andmanyotherswerecourt-cities,ruledbyprinces.
OneofthemostvibrantcitieswasVenice,anotherwasGenoa.Theyweredifferentfromotherpartsof
Europe – the clergy were not politically dominant here, nor were there powerful feudal lords. Rich
merchantsandbankersactivelyparticipatedingoverningthecity,andthishelpedtheideaofcitizenship
tostrikeroot.Evenwhenthesetownswereruledbymilitarydespots,thepridefeltbythetownspeoplein
beingcitizensdidnotweaken.
TheCity-State
CardinalGasparoContarini(1483-1542)writesaboutthedemocraticgovernmentofhiscity-stateinTheCommonwealthandGovernment
ofVenice(1534).
‘…to come to the institution of our Venetian commonwealth, the whole authority of the city…is in that council, into which all the
gentlemenoftheCitybeingoncepasttheageof25yearsareadmitted...
G.Bellini’s‘TheRecoveryoftheRelicoftheHolyCrosswaspaintedin1500,torecallaneventof1370,andissetinfifteenth-
centuryVenice.
NowfirstIamtoyieldyouareckoninghowandwithwhatwisdomitwasordainedbyourancestors,thatthecommonpeopleshouldnot
beadmittedintothiscompanyofcitizens,inwhoseauthority[lies]thewholepowerofthecommonwealth...Becausemanytroublesand
populartumultsariseinthosecities,whosegovernmentisswayedbythecommonpeople…manywereofcontraryopinion,deemingthat
itwoulddowell,ifthismannerofgoverningthecommonwealthshouldratherbedefinedbyabilityandabundanceofriches.Contrariwise
the honest citizens, and those that are liberally brought up, oftentimes fall to poverty... Therefore our wise and prudent ancestors...
orderedthatthis definitionofthepublicruleshouldgoratherby thenobilityof lineage, than bytheestimation of wealth: yetwiththat
temperature[proviso],thatmenofchiefandsupremenobilityshouldnothavethisrulealone(forthatwouldratherhavebeenthepower
of a few than a commonwealth) but also every other citizen whosoever not ignobly born: so that all which were noble by birth, or
ennobledbyvirtue,did...obtainthisrightofgovernment.’
UniversitiesandHumanism
The earliest universities in Europe had been set up in Italian towns. The universities of Padua and
Bolognahadbeencentresoflegalstudiesfromtheeleventhcentury.Commercebeingthechiefactivityin
thecity,therewasanincreasingdemandforlawyersandnotaries(acombinationofsolicitorandrecord-
keeper)towriteandinterpretrulesandwrittenagreementswithoutwhichtradeonalargescalewasnot
possible. Lawwastherefore a popular subject ofstudy, butthere was now a shiftin emphasis.Itwas
studiedinthecontextofearlierRomanculture.FrancescoPetrarch(1304-78)representedthischange.To
Petrarch,antiquitywasadistinctivecivilisationwhichcouldbebestunderstoodthroughtheactualwords
of the ancientGreeks and Romans. He therefore stressed the importance of a close reading of ancient
authors.
ACTIVITY1
LocateVeniceonthemapofItaly,andlookcarefullyatthepaintingonp.154.How
wouldyoudescribethecity,andinwhatwayswasitdifferentfromacathedral-town?
This educational programme implied that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone
couldnotgive.Thiswastheculturewhichhistoriansinthenineteenthcenturyweretolabelhumanism’.
By the early fifteenth century, the term humanist was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric,
poetry,historyandmoralphilosophy.TheLatinwordhumanitas,fromwhichhumanitieswasderived,
had been used many centuries ago by the Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero (106-43 bce), a
contemporaryofJuliusCaesar,tomeanculture.Thesesubjectswerenotdrawnfromorconnectedwith
religion,andemphasisedskillsdevelopedbyindividualsthroughdiscussionanddebate.
GiovanniPicodellaMirandola(1463-94),ahumanistofFlorence,wroteontheimportanceofdebateinOntheDignityofMan(1486).
‘For [Plato and Aristotle] itwas certain that, for the attainment of the knowledge of truth they were always seeking forthemselves,
nothing is better than to attend as often as possible the exercise of debate. For just as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic
exercise,sobeyonddoubtinthiswrestling-placeofletters,asitwere,energyofmindbecomesfarstrongerandmorevigorous.’
These revolutionary ideas attracted attention in many other universities, particularly in the newly
establisheduniversityinPetrarchsownhome-townofFlorence.Tilltheendofthethirteenthcentury,this
city had not made a mark as a centre of trade or of learning, but things changed dramatically in the
fifteenthcentury.
Florence,asketchmadein1470.
A city is known by its great citizens as much as by its wealth, and Florence had come to be known
because of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), a layman who wrote on religious themes, and Giotto (1267-
1337),anartistwhopaintedlifelikeportraits,verydifferentfromthestifffiguresdonebyearlierartists.
FromthenitdevelopedasthemostexcitingintellectualcityinItalyandasacentreofartisticcreativity.
ThetermRenaissanceManisoftenusedtodescribeapersonwithmanyinterestsandskills,because
many of the individuals who became well known at this time were people of many parts. They were
scholar-diplomat-theologian-artistcombinedinone.
GiottospaintingofthechildJesus,Assisi,Italy.
TheHumanistViewofHistory
Humaniststhoughtthattheywererestoring‘truecivilisationaftercenturiesofdarkness,fortheybelieved
that a ‘dark age had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Following them, later scholars
unquestioningly assumed that a new age’ had begun in Europe from the fourteenth century. The term
‘MiddleAges’/‘medievalperiod’wasusedforthemillennium(thousandyears)afterthefallofRome.In
the‘MiddleAges’,theyargued,theChurchhadhadsuchcompletecontrolovermensmindsthatallthe
learningoftheGreeksandRomanshadbeenblottedout.Thehumanistsusedthewordmodernforthe
periodfromthefifteenthcentury.
Periodisationusedbyhumanistsandbylaterscholars
5th–14thcenturyTheMiddleAges
5th–9thcenturyTheDarkAges
9th–11thcenturyTheEarlyMiddleAges
11th–14thcenturyTheLateMiddleAges
15thcenturyonwardsTheModernAge
Recently,historianshavequestionedthisdivision.Withmoreresearchbeingdoneandmorebeingfound
out about Europe in this period, scholars are increasingly reluctant to make sharp divisions between
centuriesintermsofbeingculturallyvibrantorotherwise.Itseemsunfairtolabelanyperiodasthe‘Dark
Ages’.
ScienceandPhilosophy:TheArabs’Contribution
Much ofthewritingsof theGreeksandRomanshadbeenfamiliartomonks andclergymenthrough the
‘MiddleAges’,buttheyhadnotmadethesewidelyknown.Inthefourteenthcentury,manyscholarsbegan
toreadtranslatedworksofGreekwriterslikePlatoandAristotle.Forthistheywereindebtednottotheir
own scholars but to Arab translators who had carefully preserved and translated ancient manuscripts
(PlatowasAflatun,andAristotleAristuinArabic).
WhilesomeEuropeanscholarsreadGreekinArabictranslation,theGreekstranslatedworksofArabic
andPersianscholarsforfurthertransmissiontootherEuropeans.Thesewereworksonnaturalscience,
mathematics,astronomy,medicineandchemistry.PtolemysAlmagest (aworkon astronomy, writtenin
Greekbefore140ceandlatertranslatedintoArabic)carriestheArabicdefinitearticle‘al’,whichbrings
outtheArabicconnection.AmongtheMuslimwriterswhowereregardedasmenofwisdomintheItalian
worldwereIbnSina*(‘Avicenna’inLatin,980-1037),anArabphysicianandphilosopherofBukharain
CentralAsia,andal-Razi(‘Rhazes’),authorofamedicalencyclopaedia.IbnRushd(‘Averroes’inLatin,
1126-98),anArabphilosopherofSpain,triedtoresolvethetensionbetweenphilosophicalknowledge
(faylasuf)andreligiousbeliefs.HismethodwasadoptedbyChristianthinkers.
*TheEuropeanspellingoftheseindividuals’namesmadelatergenerationsthinktheywereEuropeans!
Schoolsatthistimewereonlyforboys.
Humanistsreachedouttopeopleinavarietyofways.Thoughthecurriculainuniversitiescontinuedtobe
dominatedbylaw,medicineandtheology,humanistsubjectsslowlybegantobeintroducedinschools,not
justinItalybutinotherEuropeancountriesaswell.
“Art”isembeddedinnature;hewhocanextractit,hasit…Moreover,youmaydemonstratemuchofyour
work by geometry. The more closely your work abides by life in its form, so much the better will it
appear…Nomanshalleverbeabletomakeabeautifulfigureoutofhisownimaginationunlesshehas
wellstoredhismindbymuchcopyingfromlife.
Formal education was not the only way through which humanists shaped the minds of their age. Art,
architectureandbookswerewonderfullyeffectiveintransmittinghumanistideas.–AlbrechtDurer(1471-
1528)
ThissketchbyDurer(PrayingHands)givesusa sense of Italian cultureinthe sixteenthcentury,when
people were deeply religious, but also had a sense of confidence in mans ability to achieve near-
perfectionandtounravelthemysteriesoftheworldandtheuniverse.
Artistswereinspiredbystudyingworksofthepast.ThematerialremainsofRomancultureweresought
withasmuchexcitementasancienttexts:athousandyearsafterthefallofRome,fragmentsofartwere
discoveredintheruinsofancientRomeandotherdesertedcities.Theiradmirationforthefiguresof
‘perfectlyproportionedmenandwomensculptedsomanycenturiesago,madeItaliansculptorswantto
continuethattradition.In1416,Donatello(1386-1466)brokenewgroundwithhislifelikestatues.
‘ThePietabyMichelangelodepictsMaryholdingthebodyofJesus.
Artists’concerntobeaccuratewashelpedbytheworkofscientists.Tostudybonestructures,artistswent
to the laboratories of medical schools. Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian and a professor of
medicineattheUniversityofPadua,wasthefirsttodissectthehumanbody.Thiswasthebeginningof
modernphysiology.
Thisself-portraitisbyLeonardodaVinci(1452-1519)whohadanamazingrangeofinterestsfrombotanyandanatomytomathematics
andart.HepaintedtheMonaLisaandTheLastSupper.
Oneofhisdreamswastobeabletofly.Hespentyearsobservingbirdsinflight,anddesignedaflyingmachine.
Hesignedhisname‘LeonardodaVinci,discipleofexperiment’.
ACTIVITY2
Describe the different scientific elements in the work of sixteenth-century Italian
artists.
Paintersdidnothaveolderworkstouseasamodel.Butthey,likesculptors,paintedasrealisticallyas
possible.Theyfoundthataknowledgeofgeometryhelpedthemunderstandperspective,andthatbynoting
the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality. The use of oil as a
medium forpaintingalsogave a greater richnessofcolourto paintingsthanbefore.In thecoloursand
designsofcostumesinmanypaintings,thereisevidenceoftheinfluenceofChineseandPersianart,made
availabletothembytheMongols.(seeTheme5)
Thus,anatomy,geometry,physics,aswellasastrongsenseofwhatwasbeautiful,gaveanewqualityto
Italianart,whichwastobecalled‘realism’andwhichcontinuedtillthenineteenthcentury.
Architecture
ThecityofRomerevivedinaspectacularwayinthefifteenth
century.From1417,thepopeswerepoliticallystrongerbecausetheweaknesscausedbytheelectionof
tworivalpopessince1378hadended.TheyactivelyencouragedthestudyofRomeshistory.Theruinsin
Romewerecarefullyexcavatedbyarchaeologists(archaeologywasanewskill).Thisinspireda‘new
styleinarchitecture,whichwasactuallyarevivaloftheimperialRomanstyle–nowcalledclassical’.
Popes, wealthy merchants and aristocrats employed architects who were familiar with classical
architecture.Artistsandsculptorswerealsotodecoratebuildingswithpaintings,sculpturesandreliefs.
ItalianarchitectureinthesixteenthcenturycopiedmanyfeaturesofimperialRomanbuildings.
Someindividualswereskilledequallyaspainters,sculptorsandarchitects.Themostimpressiveexample
is Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) – immortalised by the ceiling he painted for the Pope in the
SistineChapel,thesculpturecalled‘ThePietaandhisdesignofthedomeofStPetersChurch,allin
Rome.FilippoBrunelleschi(1337-1446),thearchitectwhodesignedthespectacularDuomoofFlorence,
hadstartedhiscareerasasculptor.
Another remarkable change was that from this time, artists were known individually, by name, not as
membersofagrouporaguild,asearlier.
TheFirstPrintedBooks
Ifpeopleinothercountrieswantedtoseepaintings,sculpturesorbuildingsofgreatartists,theyhadto
traveltoItaly.Butinthecaseofthewrittenword,whatwaswritteninItalytravelledtoothercountries.
This was because ofthe greatest revolution of the sixteenth century – themastery of the technology of
printing.Forthis,Europeanswereindebtedtootherpeoples–theChinese,forprintingtechnology,andto
MongolrulersbecauseEuropeantradersanddiplomatshadbecomefamiliarwithitduringvisitstotheir
courts. (Thiswasalsothecase withthreeother important innovations–firearms,the compass and the
abacus.)
TheDuomo,thedomeofFlorencecathedraldesignedbyBrunelleschi.
LeonBatistaAlberti(1404-72)wroteonarttheoryandarchitecture.‘HimIcallanArchitectwhois
abletodeviseandtocompleatallthoseWorkswhich,bythemovementofgreatWeights,andbythe
conjunctionandamassmentofBodiescan,withthegreatestBeauty,
beadaptedtotheuses
ofMankind.’
Earlier,textsexistedinafewhand-writtencopies.In1455,150copiesoftheBiblewereprintedinthe
workshopofJohannnesGutenberg(1400-1458),theGermanwhomadethefirstprintingpress.Earlier,a
monkwouldhavetakenthesameamountoftimetowriteoutonecopyoftheBible!
By 1500, many classical texts, nearly allin Latin, had been printed in Italy. As printed booksbecame
available,itwaspossibletobuythem,andstudentsdidnothavetodependsolelyonlecture-notes.Ideas,
opinions and information moved more widely and more rapidly than ever before. A printed book
promotingnewideascouldquicklyreachhundredsofreaders.Thisalsomadeitpossibleforindividuals
toreadbooks,sinceitwaspossibletobuycopiesforoneself.Thisdevelopedthereadinghabitamong
people.
ThechiefreasonthatthehumanistcultureofItalyspreadmorerapidlyacrosstheAlpsfromtheendofthe
fifteenth century is that printed books were circulating. This also explains why earlier intellectual
movementshadbeenlimitedtoparticularregions.
ANewConceptofHumanBeings
Oneofthefeaturesofhumanistculturewasaslackeningofthecontrolofreligionoverhumanlife.Italians
were strongly attracted to material wealth, power and glory, but they were not necessarily irreligious.
FrancescoBarbaro(1390-1454),ahumanistfromVenice,wrotea
pamphletdefendingacquisitionofwealthasavirtue.InOnPleasure,LorenzoValla(1406-1457),who
believed that the study of history leads man to strive for a life of perfection, criticised the Christian
injunctionagainstpleasure.Therewasalsoaconcernatthistimewithgoodmanners–howoneshould
speakpolitelyanddresscorrectly,whatskillsapersonofcultureshouldlearn.
Humanismalsoimpliedthatindividualswerecapableofshapingtheirownlivesthroughmeansotherthan
themerepursuitofpowerandmoney.Thisidealwascloselytiedwiththebeliefthathumannaturewas
many-sided,whichwentagainstthethreeseparateordersthatfeudalsocietybelievedin.
NiccoloMachiavelliwroteabouthumannatureinthefifteenthchapterofhisbook,ThePrince(1513).‘So,leavingasideimaginarythings,
andreferringonlytothosewhichtrulyexist,Isaythatwhenevermenarediscussed(andespeciallyprinces,whoaremoreexposedto
view),theyarenotedforvariousqualitieswhichearnthemeitherpraiseorcondemnation.Some,forexample,areheldtobegenerous,
and others miserly. Some are held to be benefactors, others are called grasping; some cruel, some compassionate; one man faithless,
another faithful; one man effeminate and cowardly, another fierce and courageous; one man courteous, another proud; one man
lascivious,anotherpure;oneguileless,anothercrafty;onestubborn,anotherflexible;onegrave,anotherfrivolous;onereligious,another
sceptical;andsoforth.’
Machiavellibelievedthat‘allmenarebadandeverreadytodisplaytheirviciousnaturepartlybecauseofthefactthathumandesiresare
insatiable’.ThemostpowerfulmotiveMachiavellisawastheincentiveforeveryhumanactionisself-interest.
TheAspirationsofWomen
The new ideal of individuality and citizenship excluded women. Men from aristocratic families
dominated public life and were the decision-makers in their families. They educated their
sonsto take their place in family businesses or in public life, at times sending their younger
sonstojointheChurch.Althoughtheirdowrieswereinvestedinthefamilybusinesses,women
generally hadno say in how theirhusbands should run their business.Often, marriageswere
intended to strengthen business alliances. If an adequate dowry could not be arranged,
daughtersweresenttoconventstolivethelifeofanun.Obviously,thepublicrole
ofwomenwaslimitedandtheywerelookeduponaskeepersofthehouseholds.
Thepositionofwomeninthefamiliesofmerchants,however,wassomewhatdifferent.Shopkeeperswere
veryoftenassistedbytheirwivesinrunningtheshop.Infamiliesofmerchantsandbankers,wiveslooked
after the businesses when the male members were away on work. The early death of a merchant
compelledhiswidowtoperformalargerpublicrolethanwasthecaseinaristocraticfamilies.
Isabellad’Este.
ACTIVITY3
Compare the aspirations for women expressed by a woman (Fedele) and by a man
(Castiglione).Didtheyhaveonlywomenofaparticularclassinmind?
A few women were intellectually very creative and sensitive about the importance of a humanist
education.Eventhoughthestudy ofletterspromisesandoffersno rewardfor womenandnodignity,
wrote the Venetian Cassandra Fedele (1465-1558), every woman ought to seek and embrace these
studies.’ She was one of a handful of women who questioned the idea that women were incapable of
achievingthequalitiesofahumanistscholar.FedelewasknownforherproficiencyinGreekandLatin,
andwasinvitedtogiveorationsattheUniversityofPadua.
Fedele’s writings bring into focus the general regard for education in that age. She was one of many
Venetianwomenwriterswhocriticisedtherepublicforcreatingahighlylimiteddefinitionoffreedom
thatfavouredthedesiresofmenoverthoseofwomen.AnotherremarkablewomanwastheMarchesaof
Mantua,Isabellad’Este(1474-1539).Sheruledthestatewhileherhusbandwasabsent,andthecourtof
Mantua, a small state, was famed for its intellectual brilliance. Womens writings revealed their
conviction that they should have economic power, property and education to achieve an identity in a
worlddominatedbymen.
BalthasarCastiglione,authoranddiplomat,wroteinhisbookTheCourtier(1528):
‘Iholdthatawomanshouldinnowayresembleamanasregardsherways,manners,words,gesturesandbearing.Thusjustasitisvery
fitting that a man should display a certain robust and sturdy manliness, so it is well for a woman to have a certain soft and delicate
tenderness,withanairoffemininesweetnessinhereverymovement,which,inhergoingandstayingandwhatsoevershedoes,always
makesherappearawoman,withoutanyresemblancetoaman.Ifthispreceptbeaddedtotherulesthatthesegentlemenhavetaughtthe
courtier,thenIthinkthatsheoughttobeabletomakeuseofmanyofthem,andadornherselfwiththefinestaccomplishments...ForI
considerthatmanyvirtuesofthemindareasnecessarytoawomanastoaman;asitistobeofgoodfamily;toshunaffectation:tobe
naturallygraceful;tobewellmannered,cleverandprudent;tobeneitherproud,enviousorevil-tongued,norvain...toperformwelland
gracefullythesportssuitableforwomen.
DebateswithinChristianity
Tradeandtravel,militaryconquestanddiplomaticcontactslinkedItaliantownsandcourtswiththeworld
beyond.Thenewculturewasadmiredandimitatedbytheeducatedandthewealthy.Veryfewofthenew
ideasfiltereddowntotheordinarymanwho,afterall,couldnotreadorwrite.
Inthefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturies,manyscholarsinuniversitiesinnorthEuropewereattracted
to humanist ideas. Like their Italian colleagues, they too focused on classical Greek and Roman texts
alongwiththeholybooksoftheChristians.But,unlikeItaly,whereprofessionalscholarsdominatedthe
humanist movement, in north Europe humanism attracted many members of the Church. They called on
Christians to practise religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion, discarding
unnecessaryrituals,whichtheycondemnedaslateradditionstoasimplereligion.Theirswasaradically
newviewofhumanbeingsasfreeandrationalagents.Laterphilosophersweretoreturntothisoverand
overagain,inspiredbythebeliefinadistantGodwhocreatedmanbutallowedhimcompletefreedomto
livehislifefreely,inpursuitofhappiness‘hereandnow.
ChristianhumanistslikeThomasMore(1478-1535)inEnglandandErasmus(1466-1536)inHollandfelt
thattheChurchhadbecomeaninstitutionmarkedbygreed,extortingmoneyatwillfromordinarypeople.
Oneofthefavouritemethodsoftheclergywastosellindulgences’,documentswhichapparentlyfreed
the buyer from the burden of the sins he had committed. Christians came to realise from printed
translationsoftheBibleinlocallanguagesthattheirreligiondidnotpermitsuchpractices.
InalmosteverypartofEurope,peasantsbegantorebelagainstthetaxesimposedbytheChurch.While
thecommonfolkresentedtheextortionsofchurchmen,princesfoundtheirinterferenceintheworkofthe
stateirritating.Theywerepleasedwhenthehumanistspointedoutthattheclergysclaimtojudicialand
fiscal powers originated froma document called the Donation of Constantine’ supposedtohave been
issuedbyConstantine,thefirstChristianRomanEmperor.Humanistscholarswereabletopointoutthat
thiswasnotgenuine,andhadbeenforgedlater.
In 1517, a young German monk called Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a campaign against the
CatholicChurchandarguedthatapersondidnotneedprieststoestablishcontactwithGod.Heaskedhis
followerstohavecompletefaithinGod,forfaithalonecouldguidethemtotherightlifeandentryinto
heaven. This movement – called the Protestant Reformation – led to the churches in Germany and
Switzerland breakingtheirconnection with the Pope and the CatholicChurch. In Switzerland, Luthers
ideaswerepopularisedbyUlrichZwingli(1484-1531)andlaterbyJeanCalvin(1509-64).Backedby
merchants,thereformershadgreaterpopularappealintowns,whileinruralareastheCatholicChurch
managedtoretainitsinfluence.OtherGermanreformers,liketheAnabaptists,wereevenmoreradical:
theyblendedtheideaofsalvationwiththeendofallformsofsocialoppression.TheysaidthatsinceGod
had createdall people as equal, theywere notexpectedtopay taxes and had the right to choose their
priests.Thisappealedtopeasantsoppressedbyfeudalism.
TheNewTestamentisthesectionoftheBibledealingwiththelifeandteachingsofChristandhis
earlyfollowers.
WilliamTyndale(1494-1536),anEnglishLutheranwhotranslatedtheBibleintoEnglishin1506,defendedProtestantismthus:
‘Inthistheybeallagreed,to driveyoufromtheknowledge ofthescripture,and thatyeshallnothavethetextthereofinthemother-
tongue,andtokeeptheworldstillindarkness,totheintenttheymightsitintheconsciencesofthepeople,throughvainsuperstitionand
falsedoctrine,tosatisfytheirproudambition,andinsatiablecovetousness,andtoexalttheirownhonourabovekingandemperor,yea,and
aboveGodhimself...WhichthingonlymovedmetotranslatetheNewTestament.BecauseIhadperceivedbyexperience,howthatit
wasimpossibletoestablishthelay-peopleinanytruth,exceptthescripturewereplainlylaidbeforetheireyesintheirmother-tongue,that
theymightseetheprocess,order,andmeaningofthetext.‘
Luther did not support radicalism. He called upon German rulers to suppress the peasants rebellion,
whichtheydidin1525.Butradicalismsurvived,andmergedwiththeresistanceofProtestantsinFrance,
who,persecuted bythe Catholicrulers, startedclaimingthe rightofapeopletoremovean oppressive
rulerandtochoosesomeoneoftheirownliking.Eventually,inFrance,asinmanyotherpartsofEurope,
the Catholic Church allowed Protestants to worship as they chose. In England, the rulers ended the
connectionwiththePope.Theking/queenwasfromthenonwardstheheadoftheChurch.
The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and began to reform itself from
within.InSpainandinItaly,churchmenemphasisedtheneedforasimplelifeandservicetothepoor.In
Spain,IgnatiusLoyola, inan attempt to combatProtestantism, setup theSocietyofJesus in1540. His
followers were called Jesuits, whose mission was to serve thepoor and to widen their knowledge of
othercultures.
ACTIVITY4
WhatweretheissuesonwhichtheProtestantscriticisedtheCatholicChurch?
TheCopernicanRevolution
TheChristiannotionofmanasasinnerwasquestionedfromanentirelydifferentangle–byscientists.
TheturningpointinEuropeansciencecamewiththeworkofCopernicus(1473-1543),acontemporaryof
MartinLuther.Christianshadbelievedthattheearthwasasinfulplaceandtheheavyburdenofsinmade
itimmobile.Theearthstoodatthecentreoftheuniversearoundwhichmovedthecelestialplanets.
Celestialmeansdivineorheavenly,whileterrestrialimplieshavingaworldlyquality.
Self-portraitbyCopernicus.
Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth, rotate around the sun. A devout Christian,
Copernicuswasafraidofthepossiblereactiontohistheorybytraditionalistclergymen.Forthisreason,
hedidnotwanthismanuscript,Derevolutionibus(TheRotation)tobeprinted.Onhisdeathbed,hegave
ittohisfollower,JoachimRheticus.Ittooktimeforpeopletoacceptthisidea.Itwasmuchlater–more
thanhalfacenturylater,infact–thatthedifferencebetweenheavenandearthwasbridgedthroughthe
writingsofastronomerslikeJohannesKepler(1571-1630)andGalileoGalilei(1564-1642).Thetheory
of the earth as part of a sun-centred system was made popular by Keplers Cosmographical Mystery,
whichdemonstratedthattheplanetsmovearoundthesunnotincirclesbutinellipses.Galileoconfirmed
thenotionofthedynamicworldinhisworkTheMotion.Thisrevolutioninsciencereacheditsclimax
withIsaacNewtonstheoryofgravitation.
ReadingtheUniverse
GalileoonceremarkedthattheBiblethatlightstheroadtoheavendoesnotsaymuchonhowtheheavens
work. The work of these thinkers showed that knowledge, as distinct from belief, was based on
observation and experiments. Once thesescientists had shown the way, experiments and investigations
intowhatcametobecalledphysics,chemistryandbiologyexpandedrapidly.Historiansweretolabel
thisnewapproachtotheknowledgeofmanandnaturetheScientificRevolution.
Consequently, in the minds of sceptics and non-believers, God began to be replaced by Nature as the
source ofcreation.Even thosewhoretained theirfaithin God startedtalkingabout a distant God who
does notdirectly regulatetheactof living inthe materialworld. Such ideas werepopularisedthrough
scientific societies that established a new scientific culture in the public domain. The Paris Academy,
establishedin1670andtheRoyalSocietyinLondonforthepromotionofnaturalknowledge,formedin
1662,heldlecturesandconductedexperimentsforpublicviewing.
WasthereaEuropean‘Renaissance’intheFourteenthCentury?
LetusnowreconsidertheconceptoftheRenaissance’.Canweseethisperiodasmarkingasharpbreak
withthepastandtherebirthofideasfromGreekandRomantraditions?Wastheearlierperiod(twelfth
andthirteenthcenturies)atimeofdarkness?
Recentwriters,likePeterBurkeofEngland,havesuggestedthatBurckhardtwasexaggeratingthesharp
difference between this period and the one that preceded it, by using the term ‘Renaissance’, which
impliesthattheGreekandRomancivilisationswererebornatthistime,andthatscholarsandartistsof
this period substituted the pre-Christian world-view for the Christian one. Both arguments were
exaggerated.ScholarsinearliercenturieshadbeenfamiliarwithGreekandRomancultures,andreligion
continuedtobeaveryimportantpartofpeople’slives.
TocontrasttheRenaissanceas aperiod ofdynamismandartistic creativity, and theMiddleAgesasa
periodofgloomandlackofdevelopmentisanover-simplification.Manyelementsassociatedwiththe
RenaissanceinItalycanbetracedbacktothetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies.Ithasbeensuggestedby
somehistoriansthatintheninthcenturyinFrance,therehadbeensimilarliteraryandartisticblossoming.
TheculturalchangesinEuropeatthistimewerenotshapedonlybytheclassicalcivilisationofRome
andGreece.ThearchaeologicalandliteraryrecoveryofRomanculturedidcreateagreatadmirationof
thatcivilisation.ButtechnologiesandskillsinAsiahadmovedfar
aheadofwhattheGreeksandRomanshadknown.Muchmoreoftheworldhadbecomeconnected,and
the new techniques of navigation (see Theme 8) enabled people to sail much further than had been
possibleearlier.TheexpansionofIslamandtheMongolconquestshadlinkedAsiaandNorthAfricawith
Europe,notpoliticallybutintermsoftradeandoflearningskills.TheEuropeanslearnednotjustfromthe
GreeksandRomans,butfromIndia,fromArabia,fromIran,fromCentralAsiaandChina.Thesedebts
were not acknowledged for a long time because when the history of this period started to be written,
historianssawitfromaEurope-centredviewpoint.
An important change that did happen in this period was that gradually the private and the public’
spheresoflifebegantobecomeseparate:thepublicspheremeanttheareaofgovernmentandofformal
religion;theprivatesphereincludedthefamilyandpersonalreligion.Theindividualhadaprivateas
wellasapublicrole.Hewasnotsimplyamemberofoneofthethreeorders’;hewasalsoapersonin
his ownright. Anartistwas notjust a member ofaguild,hewas knownforhimself. In theeighteenth
century, this sense of the individual would be expressed in a political form, in the belief that all
individualshadequalpoliticalrights.
Another development was that the different regions of Europe started to have their separate sense of
identity, basedon language. Europe,earlier united partly by theRoman Empireand laterby Latin and
Christianity,wasnowdissolvingintostates,eachunitedbyacommonlanguage.
Exercises
Answerinbrief
1.WhichelementsofGreekandRomanculturewererevivedinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies?
2.ComparedetailsofItalianarchitectureofthisperiodwithIslamicarchitecture.
3.WhywereItaliantownsthefirsttoexperiencetheideasofhumanism?
4.ComparetheVenetianideaofgoodgovernmentwiththoseincontemporaryFrance.
Answerinashortessay
5.Whatwerethefeaturesofhumanistthought?
6.Writeacarefulaccountofhowtheworldappeareddifferenttoseventeenth-centuryEuropeans.
Theme8
CONFRONTATIONOFCULTURES
Thischapter willexaminesomeaspects oftheencounters betweenEuropeans and thepeople ofthe
Americas between the fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries. Some Europeans ventured out on
unknownoceansinordertofindtradingroutestoareaswherespicesandsilverweretobeobtained.
ThefirsttodothisweretheSpanishandthePortuguese.TheypersuadedthePopetogivethemthe
exclusive right to rule over any new regions they might locate. Christopher Columbus, an Italian,
sponsoredbytherulersofSpain,sailedwestin1492,andthoughtthatthelandshehadreachedwere
‘theIndies’(IndiaandcountrieseastofIndiaaboutwhichhehadreadintheTravelsofMarcoPolo).
LaterexplorationindicatedthattheIndians’ofthe‘NewWorld’actuallybelongedtodifferentcultural
groupsandwerenotpartofAsia.TwotypesofcultureweretobefoundintheAmericas.Therewere
small subsistence economies in the Caribbean region and in Brazil. There were also powerful
monarchicalsystemsbasedonwell-developedagricultureandmining.These,liketheAztecsandMayas
ofcentralAmericaandtheIncasofPeru,alsohadmonumentalarchitecture.
TheexplorationandlaterthesettlementofSouthAmericaweretohavedisastrousconsequencesforthe
nativepeopleandtheircultures.Italsomarkedthebeginningoftheslavetrade,withEuropeansselling
slavesfromAfricatoworkinplantationsandminesintheAmericas.
European conquest of the people of America was accompanied by the ruthless destruction of their
manuscriptsandmonuments.Itwasonlyinthelatenineteenthcenturythatanthropologistsbegantostudy
these cultures. Still later, archaeologists found the ruins of these civilisations. The Inca city of Machu
Picchuwasrediscoveredin1911.Recently,photographstakenfromtheairhaveshowntracesofmany
citiesnowcoveredbyforest.
Bycontrast,weknowtheEuropeansideoftheencountersingreatdetail.TheEuropeanswhowenttothe
Americas kept log-books and diaries of their journeys. There are records left by officials and Jesuit
missionaries(seeTheme7).Europeanswroteabouttheir‘discoveryoftheAmericas,andwhenhistories
of the countries of America were written, these were in terms of European settlements, with little
referencetothelocalpeople.
PeoplehavebeenlivinginNorthandSouthAmericaandnearbyislandsforthousandsofyears,andmany
migrationsfromAsiaandfromtheSouthSeaIslandshavetakenplaceovertime.SouthAmericawas(and
still is, in parts) densely forested and mountainous, and the Amazon, the world’s largest river, flows
through miles of dense forest. In Mexico, in central America, there were densely settled areas of
habitationalongthecoastandintheplains,whileelsewherevillageswerescatteredoverforestedareas.
CommunitiesoftheCaribbeanandBrazil
The Arawakian Lucayos lived on a cluster of hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea, today
knownastheBahamas,andtheGreaterAntilles.TheyhadbeenexpelledfromtheLesserAntillesbythe
Caribs, a fierce tribe. In contrast to them, the Arawaks were a people who preferred negotiation to
conflict.Skilledboat-builders,theysailedtheopenseaindugoutcanoes(canoesmadefromhollowtree
trunks).Theylivedbyhunting,fishingandagriculture,growingcorn,sweetpotatoes,tubersandcassava.
Acentralculturalvaluewastheorganisationofpeopletoproducefoodcollectivelyandtofeedeveryone
inthe community. They wereorganised under clanelders.Polygamywascommon.The Arawakswere
animists. As in many other societies, shamans played an important role as healers and intermediaries
betweenthisworldandthatofthesupernatural.
Animistsbelievethatevenobjectsregardedbymodernscienceas‘inanimate’mayhavelifeorasoul.
Map1:CentralAmericaandtheCaribbeanIslands
TheArawaksusedgoldforornaments,butdidnotattachthevaluetothemetalthattheEuropeansdid.
TheywerequitehappytoexchangegoldforglassbeadsbroughtbytheEuropeans,becausetheseseemed
so much more beautiful. The art of weaving was highly developed – the hammock was one of their
specialities,andonewhichcapturedtheimaginationoftheEuropeans.
ACTIVITY1
Discuss the differences between the Arawaks and the Spanish. Which of these
differenceswouldyouconsidermostsignificantandwhy?
TheArawaksweregenerousandwerehappytocollaboratewiththeSpanishintheirsearchforgold.It
waswhenSpanishpolicybecamebrutalthattheywereforcedtoresist,butthiswastohavedisastrous
consequencesforthem.Withintwenty-fiveyearsofcontactwiththeSpanishverylittleremainedofthe
Arawaksortheirwayoflife.
PeoplecalledtheTupinambalivedontheeastcoastofSouthAmerica,andinvillagesintheforests(the
name‘Brazilisderivedfromthebrazilwoodtree).Theycouldnotclearthedenseforestsforcultivation
astheyhadnoaccesstoiron.Buttheyhadahealthyandplentifulsupplyoffruits,vegetablesandfish,and
sodidnothavetodependonagriculture.TheEuropeanswhometthemenviedtheirhappyfreedom,with
noking,armyorchurchtoregulatetheirlives.
TheStateSystemsofCentralandSouthAmerica
IncontrasttotheCaribbeanandBrazil,thereweresomehighlyorganisedstatesincentralAmerica.There
wasageneroussurplusofcorn,whichprovidedthebasisfortheurbanisedcivilisationsoftheAztecs,
Mayas and Incas. The monumental architectural remains of these cities continue to mesmerise visitors
today.
TheAztecs
Inthetwelfthcentury,theAztecshadmigratedfromthenorthintothecentralvalleyofMexico(named
aftertheirgodMexitli).Theyexpandedtheirempirebydefeatingdifferenttribes,whowereforcedtopay
tribute.
Aball-courtmarker,withinscribeddates,Mayaculture,Chiapas,sixthcentury.
Aztecsocietywashierarchical.Thenobilityincludedthosewhowerenoblesbybirth,priests,andothers
whohadbeenawardedtherank.Thehereditarynobilitywereasmallminoritywhooccupiedthesenior
positionsinthegovernment,thearmyandthepriesthood.Thenobleschosefromamongthemasupreme
leader who ruled until his death. The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.
Warriors,priestsand nobleswerethemostrespectedgroups,but tradersalso enjoyedmany privileges
and often served the government as ambassadors and spies. Talented artisans, physicians and wise
teacherswerealsorespected.
Since landwaslimited, the Aztecsundertookreclamations.Theymade chinampas,artificialislands, in
Lake Mexico, by weaving huge reed-mats and covering them with mud and plants. Between these
exceptionally fertile islands, canals were constructed on which, in 1325, was built the capital city
Tenochtitlan. Its palaces and pyramids rose dramatically out of the lake. Because the Aztecs were
frequentlyengagedinwar,themostimpressivetempleswerededicatedtothegodsofwarandthesun.
Reclamationistheconversionofwastelandintolandsuitableforhabitationorcultivation.
Theempirerestedonaruralbase.Peoplecultivatedcorn,beans,squash,pumpkins,maniocroot,potatoes
and other crops. Land was owned not by individuals but by clans, which also organised public
construction works. Peasants, like European serfs, were attached to lands owned by the nobility and
cultivated them in exchange for part of the harvest. The poor would sometimes sell their children as
slaves,butthiswasusuallyonlyforalimitedperiod,andslavescouldbuybacktheirfreedom.
TheAztecsmadesurethatallchildrenwenttoschool.Childrenofthenobilityattendedthecalmecacand
were trained to become military and religious leaders. All others went to the tepochcalli in their
neighbourhood,wheretheylearnedhistory,myths,religionandceremonialsongs.Boysreceivedmilitary
trainingaswellastraininginagricultureandthetrades.Girlsweretrainedindomesticskills.
Intheearlysixteenthcentury,theAztecempirewasshowingsignsofstrain.Thiswaslargelytodowith
discontent among recently conquered peoples who were looking for opportunities to break free from
centralcontrol.
TheMayas
TheMayancultureofMexicodevelopedremarkablybetweentheeleventhandfourteenthcenturies,butin
thesixteenthcenturytheyhadlesspoliticalpowerthantheAztecs.Corncultivationwascentraltotheir
culture, and many religious ceremonies were centred on the planting, growing and harvesting of corn.
Efficientagriculturalproductiongeneratedsurplus,whichhelpedtherulingclasses,priestsandchiefsto
invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics. The Mayas devised a
pictographicformofwritingthathasonlybeenpartiallydeciphered.
Mayatemple,Tikal,Guatemala,eighthcentury.
TheIncasofPeru
ThelargestoftheindigenouscivilisationsinSouthAmericawasthatoftheQuechuasorIncasinPeru.In
thetwelfthcenturythefirstInca,MancoCapac,establishedhiscapitalatCuzco.Expansionbeganunder
theninthIncaandatitsmaximumextenttheIncaempirestretched3,000milesfromEcuadortoChile.
The empire was highly centralised, with the king representing the highest source of authority. Newly
conqueredtribeswereabsorbedeffectively;everysubjectwasrequiredtospeakQuechua,thelanguage
ofthecourt.Eachtribewasruledindependentlybyacouncilofelders,butthetribeasawholeowedits
allegiancetotheruler.Atthesametime,localrulerswererewardedfortheirmilitaryco-operation.Thus,
liketheAztecempire,theIncaempireresembledaconfederacy,withtheIncasincontrol.Thereareno
precisefiguresofthepopulation,butitwouldseemthatitincludedoveramillionpeople.
Map2:SouthAmerica
Like the Aztecs, the Incas too were magnificent builders. They built roads through mountains from
EcuadortoChile.Theirfortswerebuiltofstoneslabsthatweresoperfectlycutthattheydidnotrequire
mortar.Theyusedlabour-intensivetechnologytocarveandmovestonesfromnearbyrockfalls.Masons
shapedtheblocks,usinganeffectivebutsimplemethodcalledflaking.Manystonesweighedmorethan
100metrictons,buttheydidnothaveanywheeledvehiclestotransportthese.Labourwasorganisedand
verytightlymanaged.
ThebasisoftheIncacivilisationwasagriculture.Tocopewiththeinfertilesoilconditions,theyterraced
hillsidesanddevelopedsystemsofdrainageandirrigation.Ithasbeenrecentlypointedoutthatin1500,
cultivation in the Andean highlands was much greater than what it is today. The Incas grew corn and
potatoes,andrearedllamasforfoodandlabour.
Theirweavingandpotterywereofahighquality.Theydidnotdevelopasystemofwriting.However,
therewasanaccountingsysteminplace–thequipu,orcordsuponwhichknotsweremadetoindicate
specific mathematical units. Some scholars now suggest that the Incas wove a sort of code into these
threads.
MostvisitorstodaywonderattheartsandskillsoftheIncas.However,therearesomeliketheChileanpoetNeruda,whothoughtofthe
hours of hard work that thousandsofpeoplemusthave been forcedto put in. And all thatto achieve such highlevelsofagricultural
output,suchremarkablearchitecture,andsuchexquisitecrafts,inthisdifficultenvironment.
‘Lookatmefromthedepthsoftheearth,
tilleroffields,weaver,reticentshepherd,
masonhighonyourtreacherousscaffolding,
icemanofAndeantears,
jewelerwithcrushedfingers,
farmeranxiousamonghisseedlings,
potterwastedamonghisclays
bringtothecupofthisnewlife
yourancientburiedsorrows.
Showmeyourbloodandyourfurrow;
saytome:hereIwasscourged
becauseagemwasdullorbecausetheearth
failedtogiveupintimeitstitheofcornorstone.
PabloNeruda(1904-73),TheHeightsofMachuPicchu,1943.
ThehilltoptownofMachuPicchu.ItescapedthenoticeoftheSpaniardsandwasthereforenotdestroyed.
The organisation of the Inca empire, with its pyramid-like structure, meant that if the Inca chief was
captured,thechainofcommandcouldquicklycomeapart.Thiswaspreciselywhathappenedwhenthe
Spaniardsdecidedtoinvadetheircountry.
The cultures of the Aztecs and Incas had certain features in common, and were very different from
Europeanculture.Society washierarchical,buttherewasno privateownership ofresourcesbyafew
people, asin Europe. Though priests and shamans were accordedan exaltedstatus, and large temples
werebuilt,inwhichgoldwasusedritually,therewasnogreatvalueplacedongoldorsilver.Thiswas
alsoinmarkedcontrasttocontemporaryEuropeansociety.
ACTIVITY2
Examine a detailed physical map of South America. To what extent do you think
geographyinfluencedthedevelopmentsoftheIncaempire?
VoyagesofExplorationbyEuropeans
ThepeopleofSouthAmericaandtheCaribbeangottoknowoftheexistenceofEuropeanpeoplewhen
thelatterbegantosailacrosstheAtlanticSea.Themagneticcompass,whichhelpedidentifythecardinal
pointsaccurately,hadbeenknownsince1380,butonlyinthefifteenthcenturydidpeopleuseitwhenthey
venturedonvoyagesintounknown areas.Bythistimemanyimprovementshad beenmadeinEuropean
sailingships.Largershipswerebuilt,thatcouldcarryahugequantityofcargoaswellasequipmentto
defend themselves if attacked by enemy ships. The circulation of travel literature and books on
cosmographyandgeographycreatedwidespreadinterestrightthroughthefifteenthcentury.
In1477,PtolemysGeography(written1,300yearsearlier)becameavailableinprint(seeTheme7)and
thuscametobewidelyread.AccordingtoPtolemy,anEgyptian,theregionsoftheworldwerearranged
intermsoflatitudesandlongitudes.ReadingthesetextsgaveEuropeanssomeknowledgeoftheworld,
whichtheyunderstoodtohavethreecontinents,namely,Europe,AsiaandAfrica.Ptolemyhadsuggested
thattheworldwasspherical,butheunderestimatedthewidthoftheoceans.Europeanshadnoideaofthe
distancetheywouldhavetotravelintheAtlanticbeforetheyreachedland.Sincetheyimagineditwould
beashortvoyage,thereweremanywhowerereadytoventureforthrecklesslybeyondtheknownseas.
Cosmographywasunderstoodasthescienceofmappingtheuniverse.ItdescribedbothheavenandEarth,
butwasseenasdistinctfromgeographyandastronomy.
PeoplefromtheIberianpeninsula–thePortugueseandtheSpanish–werethepioneersinthefifteenth-
century voyages of exploration. For a long time these were called voyages of discovery. Later
historians,however,arguedthatthesewerenotthefirstvoyagesthatpeopleofthe“OldWorld”madeto
lands unknown to them. Arabs, Chineseand Indians had navigatedvast stretches of ocean, and sailors
from the Pacific Islands (the Polynesians and Micronesians) had made major ocean crossings. The
VikingsofNorwayhadreachedNorthAmericaintheeleventhcentury.
Why were Spanish and Portuguese rulers in particular so receptive to the idea of funding a maritime
quest? What produced such a passionfor goldandtreasureandfor gloryand titles?One may find the
answersinacombinationofthreemotives:economic,religiousandpolitical.
TheEuropeaneconomywentthroughadeclinefromthemid-fourteenthtothemid-fifteenthcenturies(see
Theme6).PlagueandwarsledtodepopulationinmanypartsofEurope,tradegrewslack,andtherewas
ashortageofgoldandsilver,usedformakingEuropeancoins.Thissituationwasinstarkcontrasttothe
precedingperiod(fromtheeleventhtothemid-fourteenthcenturies)whengrowingtradehadsupported
Italiancity-statesandledtotheaccumulationofcapital.Inthelatefourteenthcentury,long-distancetrade
declined,andthenbecamedifficultaftertheTurksconqueredConstantinoplein1453.Italiansmanagedto
dobusinesswithTurks,butwerenowrequiredtopayhighertaxesontrade.
ThepossibilitythatmanymorepeoplecouldbebroughtintothefoldofChristianitymademanydevout
ChristianEuropeansreadytofaceadventure.
As it happened, the Crusades’ against the Turks (see Theme 4) began as a religious war, but they
increasedEurope’stradewithAsiaandcreatedatastefortheproductsofAsia,especiallyspices.Iftrade
couldbefollowedbypoliticalcontrol,withEuropeancountriesestablishingcolonies’inregionswitha
warmerclimate,theywouldbenefitfurther.
Whenthinkingofnewregionswheregoldandspicesmightbefound,onepossibilitywasWestAfrica,
whereEuropeanshadnottradeddirectlysofar.Portugal,asmallcountrywhichhadgainedindependence
fromSpainsince1139,andwhichhaddevelopedfishingandsailingskills,tookthelead.PrinceHenryof
Portugal(calledtheNavigator)organisedthecoastingofWestAfricaandattackedCeutain1415.After
that,moreexpeditionswereorganised,andthePortugueseestablishedatradingstationinCapeBojador
inAfrica.Africanswerecapturedandenslaved,andgolddustyieldedthepreciousmetal.
InSpain,economicreasonsencouragedindividualstobecomeknightsoftheocean.Thememoryofthe
CrusadesandthesuccessoftheReconquistafannedprivateambitionsandgaverisetocontractsknownas
capitulaciones. Under these contracts the Spanish ruler claimed rights of sovereignty over newly
conquered territories and gave rewards to leaders of expeditions in the form of titles and the right to
governtheconqueredlands.
Reconquistawas the military reconquest of the Iberian Peninsulaby Christian kingsfrom the Arabsin
1492.
TheAtlanticCrossing
ChristopherColumbus(1451-1506)wasaself-taughtmanwhosoughtadventureandglory.Believingin
prophecies, he was convinced that his destiny lay in discovering a route to the East (the Indies’) by
sailingwestwards.HewasinspiredbyreadingImagoMundi(aworkonastronomyandgeography)by
CardinalPierred’Aillywrittenin1410.HesubmittedhisplanstothePortugueseCrown,onlytohave
themturneddown.HehadbetterluckwiththeSpanishauthoritieswhosanctionedamodestexpedition
thatsetsailfromtheportofPaloson3August1492.
Nothing, however, prepared Columbus and his crew for the long Atlantic crossing that they embarked
upon,orforthedestinationthatawaitedthem.Thefleetwassmall,consistingofasmallnaocalledSanta
Maria, and two caravels (small light ships) named Pinta and Nina. Columbus himself commanded
theSanta Mariaalongwith 40capablesailors.The outwardjourney enjoyed fair trade winds but was
long.For33days,thefleetsailedwithoutsightofanythingbutseaandsky.Bythistime,thecrewbecame
restiveandsomeofthemdemandedthattheyturnback.
NaomeansaheavyshipinSpanish.ItisderivedfromArabic,andthisisexplainedbythefactofArab
occupationoftheregiontill1492.
On12October1492,theysightedland;theyhadreachedwhatColumbus thoughtwasIndia,butwhich
was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas. (It is said that this name was given by Columbus, who
describedtheIslandsassurroundedbyshallowseas,bajamarinSpanish.)Theywerewelcomedbythe
Arawaks, who were happy to share their food and provisions; in fact, their generosity made a deep
impressionuponColumbus.Ashewroteinhislog-book,Theyaresoingenuousandfreewithallthey
have,thatnoonewouldbelieveitwhohasnotseenofit,anythingtheypossess,ifitbeaskedofthem,
theyneversayno,onthecontrary,theyinviteyoutoshareitandshowasmuchloveasiftheirheartswent
withit’.
ColumbusplantedaSpanishflaginGuanahani(whichherenamedSanSalvador),heldaprayerservice
and, without consulting the local people, proclaimed himself viceroy. He enlisted their cooperation in
pressingforwardtothelargerislandsofCubanascan(Cuba,whichhethoughtwasJapan!)andKiskeya
(renamed Hispaniola, today divided between two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Gold
wasnotimmediatelyavailable,buttheexplorershadheardthatitcouldbefoundinHispaniola,inthe
mountainstreamsintheinterior.
EuropeansmeetnativeAmericans–aEuropeanwoodblockprint,sixteenthcentury.
Butbeforetheycouldgetveryfar,theexpeditionwasovertakenbyaccidentsandhadtofacethehostility
ofthefierceCaribtribes.Themenclamouredtogetbackhome.Thereturnvoyageprovedmoredifficult
astheshipswereworm-eatenandthecrewtiredandhomesick.Theentirevoyagetook32weeks.Three
morevoyagesfollowed,inthecourseofwhichColumbuscompletedhisexplorationsintheBahamasand
theGreaterAntilles,theSouthAmericanmainlandanditscoast.Subsequentvoyagesrevealedthatitwas
notthe‘IndiesthattheSpaniardshadfound,butanewcontinent.
‘Viceroymeansinplaceoftheking(inthiscasetheKingofSpain).
Columbus’s achievement had been to discover theboundaries of what seemed like infinite seas and to
demonstrate that five weeks sailingwith the trade wind took one to the other sideof the globe.Since
placesareoftengiventhenamesofindividuals,itiscuriousthatColumbusiscommemoratedonlyina
smalldistrictintheUSAandinacountryinnorth-westernSouthAmerica(Columbia),thoughhedidnot
reacheitheroftheseareas.ThetwocontinentswerenamedafterAmerigoVespucci,ageographerfrom
Florence who realised how large they might be, and described them as the New World’. The name
‘America’wasfirstusedbyaGermanpublisherin1507.
ACTIVITY3
WhataccordingtoyouwerethereasonsforpeoplefromdifferentEuropeancountries
wantingtotaketheriskofgoingona‘voyageofdiscovery’?
SpainEstablishesanEmpireinAmerica
Spanishexpansionwasbasedonadisplayofmilitarystrengthwiththeuseofgunpowderandofhorses.
Thelocalpeoplewerecompelledeithertopaytributeortoworkingoldandsilvermines.Theinitial
discoverywas typicallyfollowed by establishingasmallsettlement, peopledbyafew Spaniardswho
supervisedthelabourofthelocalinhabitants.Localchieftainswereenlistedtoexplorenewlandsand,
hopefully,moresourcesofgold.Thegreedforgoldledtoviolentincidentsprovokinglocalresistance.
TheSpanishfriarBartolomedelasCasas,themostseverecriticoftheSpanishconquerors,observedthat
theSpanishoftentestedtheirswordsonthenakedfleshoftheArawaks.
To military repression and forced labour was added the ravages of disease. The diseases of the Old
World,particularlysmallpoxwreakedhavocontheArawakswhoselackofimmunityresultedinlarge-
scaledeaths.Thelocalpeopleimaginedthesediseaseswerecausedby‘invisiblebulletswithwhichthe
Spaniards attacked them. The extinction of the Arawaks and all traces of their way of life is a silent
reminderoftheirtragicencounterwithSpaniards.
The expeditions of Columbus were followed by a sustained and successful exploration of Central and
South America. Within half a century, the Spanish had explored and laid claim to a vast area of the
westernhemisphere,fromapproximatelylatitudes40degreesnorthto40degreessouth,withoutanyone
challengingthem.
Beforethis,theSpanishconqueredlandsoftwogreatempiresoftheregion.Thiswaslargelytheworkof
two individuals: Hernan Cortes (1488-1547) and Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541). Their explorations
werefinancedbymembersofthelandedgentryinSpain,officialsofmunicipalcouncilsandnoblemen.
Those joining the expeditions supplied their own equipment in exchange for a share of the booty they
expectedfromtheconquests.
CortesandtheAztecs
Cortesandhissoldiers(calledconquistadores)conqueredMexicoswiftlyandruthlessly.In1519,Cortes
setsailfromCubatoMexico,wherehemadefriendswiththeTotonacs,agroupwhowantedtosecede
from Aztec rule. The Aztec king, Montezuma, sent an official to meet him. He was terrified at the
aggressivenessoftheSpanish,theirgunpowderandtheirhorses.Montezumahimselfwasconvincedthat
Corteswasthereincarnationofanexiledgodwhohadreturnedtoavengehimself.
DonaMarina
BernardDiaz delCastillo(1495-1584) wrote in his TrueHistoryofthe Conquest of Mexicothatthe people of Tabasco gave Cortesa
woman attendant called Dona Marina. She was fluent in threelocal languages, and was able to play a crucial role as interpreterfor
Cortes. ‘Thiswasthe greatbeginning of ourconquests,andwithoutDonaMarinawe couldnot haveunderstoodthe languageofNew
SpainandMexico.’
Diazthoughtshewasaprincess,buttheMexicanscalledher‘Malinche’,awordmeaning‘betrayal’.Malinchistameanssomeonewho
slavishlycopiesthecostumesandlanguageofanotherpeople.
BernardDiazwrote:
‘And when we saw all those cities and villages built in the water, and other towns on dry land, and that straight and level causeway
leadingtoMexicoCity,
wewereastounded.Thesegreattownsandbuildingsrisingfromthewaterallmadeofstone,seemedlikeanenchantedvisionfromthe
taleofAmadis.Indeed,someofoursoldiersaskedwhetheritwasnotadream.’
TheSpaniardspressedagainsttheTlaxcalans,fiercefighterswhosubmittedonlyafterastiffresistance.
The Spaniards proceeded to massacre them cruelly. Then they marched to Tenochtitlan, which they
reachedon8November1519.
TheinvadingSpaniardsweredumbstruckatthesightofTenochtitlan.ItwasfivetimeslargerthanMadrid
andhad100,000inhabitants,twicethepopulationofSeville,Spainslargestcity.
Cortes was cordially received by Montezuma. The Aztecs led the Spaniards into the heart of the city,
where the Emperor showered them with gifts. His people were apprehensive, having heard of the
massacreoftheTlaxcalans.AnAztecaccountdescribedthesituation:ItwasasthoughTenochtitlanhad
given shelter to a monster. The people of Tenochtitlan felt as if everyone had eaten stupefying
mushrooms...asif theyhadseensomethingastonishing.Terrordominatedeveryone,asif alltheworld
werebeingdisemboweled...peoplefellintoafearfulslumber.’
ThefearsoftheAztecsprovedtobewellfounded.CorteswithoutanyexplanationplacedtheEmperor
underhousearrestandattemptedtoruleinhisname.InanattempttoformalisetheEmperorssubmission
to Spain, Cortes installed Christian images in the Aztec temple. Montezuma, on his part, suggested a
compromiseandplacedbothAztecandChristianimagesinthetemple.
Above:AEuropeansketchofTenochtitlan,sixteenthcentury.
Below:ThegrandstairwaythatledtothetemplesinthecentreofTenochtitlan,nowaruininMexicoCity.
Atthispoint,CorteshadtoleavehisdeputyinchargeandhurrybacktoCuba.Thehigh-handednessofthe
Spanishoccupationandtheirincessantdemandsforgoldprovokedageneraluprising.Alvaradoordered
amassacreduringtheAztecspringfestivalofHuizilpochtli.WhenCortesreturnedon25June1520,he
hadonhishandsafull-blowncrisis.Thecausewayswerecut,thebridgestakenawayandthenetclosed.
TheSpaniardsfacedacuteshortagesoffoodanddrinkingwater.Corteswasforcedtoretreat.
Around this time, Montezuma died under mysterious circumstances. The Aztecs continued to fight the
Spaniards.600conquistadoresandmanymoreoftheirTlaxcalanallieswerekilledinwhatisknownas
theNightofTears.CorteswasforcedtoretreattoTlaxcalatoplanhisstrategyagainstthenewlyelected
king, Cuatemoc. By then, the Aztecs were dying from the dreaded smallpox which had come with the
Europeans.Withjust180soldiersand30horses,CortesmovedintoTenochtitlanastheAztecsprepared
for their final stand. The Aztecs thought they could see omens foretelling that their end was near, and
becauseofthistheEmperorchosetogiveuphislife.
The conquest of Mexico had taken two years. Cortes became Captain-General of New Spain in
MexicoandwasshoweredwithhonoursbyCharlesV.FromMexico,theSpaniardsextendedtheircontrol
overGuatemala,NicaraguaandtheHonduras.
PizarroandtheIncas
Pizarro,incontrasttoCortes,wasuneducatedandpoorwhenhejoinedthearmyandfoundhiswaytothe
CaribbeanIslandsin1502.HehadheardstoriesabouttheIncakingdomasalandofsilverandgold(El-
dor-ado).HemaderepeatedattemptstoreachitfromthePacific.Ononeofhisjourneysbackhome,he
wasabletomeettheSpanishkingandshowhimbeautifullydesignedgoldjarsofIncaworkmanship.The
kingsgreedwasaroused,andhepromisedPizarrothegovernorshipoftheIncalandsifheconqueredit.
Pizarro planned to follow Cortes’ method, but was disconcerted to find that the situation in the Inca
empirewasdifferent.
In1532,AtahualpasecuredthethroneoftheIncaempireafteracivilwar.Pizarroarrivedonthescene
andcapturedtheking
after setting a trap for him. The king offered a roomful of gold as ransom for his release – the most
extravagant ransom recorded in history – but Pizarro did not honour his promise. He had the king
executed,andhisfollowerswentonalootingspree.Thiswasfollowedbytheoccupationofthecountry.
Thecrueltyoftheconquerorsprovokedanuprisingin1534thatcontinuedfortwoyears,duringwhich
timethousandsdiedinwarandduetoepidemics.
In another five years, the Spanish had located the vast silver mines in Potosi (in Upper Peru, modern
Bolivia)andtoworkthesetheymadetheIncapeopleintoslaves.
Agoldstatuetteofawoman,Peru.ThiswasfoundinatombwhichtheSpanishmissed,andthereforewasnotmelteddown.
CabralandBrazil
ThePortugueseoccupationofBraziloccurredbyaccident.In1500,agrandprocessionofshipssetout
fromPortugalforIndia,headedbyPedroAlvaresCabral.Toavoidstormyseas,hemadeawideloop
aroundWestAfrica,andfoundtohissurprisethathehadreachedthecoastofpresent-dayBrazil.Asit
happened,thiseasternpartofSouthAmericawaswithinthesectionassignedonthemaptoPortugalby
thePope,sotheyregardeditasindisputablytheirs.
ThePortugueseweremoreeagertoincreasetheirtradewithwesternIndiathanwithBrazil,whichdid
not promise any gold. But there was one natural resource there which they exploited: timber. The
brazilwoodtree,afterwhichtheEuropeansnamedtheregion,producedabeautifulreddye.Thenatives
readilyagreedtocutthetreesandcarrythelogstotheshipsinexchangeforironknivesandsaws,which
they regardedas marvels. (’Forone sickle, knife or comb [they] would bring loads of hens,monkeys,
parrots,honey,wax,cottonthreadandwhateverelsethesepoorpeoplehad’.)
‘Whydoyoupeople,FrenchandPortuguese,comefromsofarawaytoseekwood?Dontyouhavewood
inyourcountry?’anativeaskedaFrenchpriest. At the end oftheirdiscussion,hesaidIcanseethat
youaregreatmadmen.Youcrosstheseaandsuffergreatinconvenienceandworksohardtoaccumulate
richesforyourchildren.Isthelandthatnourishedyounotsufficienttofeedthemtoo?Wehavefathers,
mothersandchildrenwhomwelove.Butwearecertainthatafterourdeaththelandthatnourisheduswill
alsofeedthem.Wethereforerestwithoutfurthercares.’
ACTIVITY4
Analyse the effects of contact with the Europeans on the native people of South
America.DescribetheirreactionstothesettlersandtheJesuits.
This trade in timber led tofierce battles between Portuguese and French traders. The Portuguese won
becausetheydecidedto‘settle’in/colonisethecoast.In1534,thekingofPortugaldividedthecoastof
Brazil into fourteen hereditary ‘captaincies’. To the Portuguese who wanted to live there he gave
landownershiprights,andtherighttomakethelocalpeopleintoslaves.ManyPortuguesesettlerswere
veteransofthewarsinGoa,inIndia,andwerebrutaltothelocalpeople.
Inthe1540s,thePortuguesebegantogrowsugarcaneonlargeplantationsandbuiltmillstoextractsugar,
whichwasthensoldinEurope.Inthisveryhotandhumidclimatetheydependedonthenativestowork
thesugarmills.Whenthenativesrefusedtodothisexhaustinganddrearywork,themill-ownersresorted
tokidnappingthemtoworkasslaves.
Thenativeskeptretreatingintotheforeststoescapethe‘slavers’and,astimewenton,therewerehardly
any native villages on the coast; instead, there were large, well-laid-out European towns. Plantation
owners were then forced toturn to another source for slaves: West Africa. This was a contrast to the
Spanishcolonies.AlargepartofthepopulationintheAztecandIncaempireshadbeenusedtolabouring
inminesandfields,sotheSpanishdidnotneedtoformallyenslavethemortolookelsewhere
forslaves.
In 1549, a formal government under the Portuguese king was established, with the capital in
Bahia/Salvador. From this time, Jesuits started to go out to Brazil. European settlers disliked them
becausetheyarguedforhumaneinteractionwiththenatives,venturedintotheforeststoliveinvillages,
and sought to teach them Christianity as a joyous religion. Above all, the Jesuits strongly criticised
slavery.
‘Thereisnogreatercurseonahomeorfamilythantobeunjustlysupportedbythesweatofothers!’
‘Anymanwhodeprivesothersoftheirfreedom,andbeingabletorestorethatfreedom,doesnotdoso,iscondemned!’
AntonioVieira,JesuitpriestinBrazil,1640s.
Conquest,ColoniesandtheSlaveTrade
WhathadbegunasuncertainvoyagescametohavelastingconsequencesforEurope,theAmericasand
Africa.
Fromthefifteenthcentury,Europeanmaritimeprojectsproducedknowledgeofcontinuoussea passages
fromoceantoocean.Beforethis,mostofthesepassageshadbeenunknowntoEuropeans.Somewerenot
knowntoanyone.NoshiphadpenetratedtheCaribbeanortheAmericas.TheSouthAtlanticwaswholly
unexplored;nosea-goingshiphadeverentereditswaters,muchlesscrossedit,orsailedfromittothe
Pacific or the Indian Ocean. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, all these feats were
accomplished.
For Europe, thediscovery of the Americashad consequencesfor others besides the initial voyagers.
The influx of gold and silver helped further expansion of international trade and industrialisation.
Between1560and1600,ahundredshipseachyearcarriedsilverfromSouthAmericanminestoSpain.
ButitwasnotSpainandPortugalthatbenefited.Theydidnotinvesttheirhugeincomeinfurthertrade,or
inbuildingupamerchantnavy.Instead,itwasthecountriesborderingtheAtlantic,particularlyEngland,
France, Belgium and Holland, that took advantage of the discoveries’. Their merchants formed joint-
stockcompaniesandsentouttradingexpeditions,establishedcoloniesandintroducedEuropeanstothe
productsoftheNewWorld,includingtobacco,potatoes,cane-sugar,cacaoandrubber.
Europealsobecamefamiliar withnewcropsfromAmerica,notablypotatoesandchillies.Thesewere
thentakenbyEuropeanstoothercountrieslikeIndia.
ForthenativepeopleoftheAmericas,theimmediateconsequenceswerethephysicaldecimationoflocal
populations,thedestructionoftheirwayoflifeandtheirenslavementinmines,plantationsandmills.
Estimatesindicatethatpre-conquestMexicohadapopulationofbetween30and37.5million,theAndean
regionasimilarnumberwhileCentralAmericahadbetween10and13million.Thenativesontheeveof
the arrival of the Europeans totalled 70 million. A century and a half later, they had reduced to 3.5
million.Warfareanddiseasewereprimarilyresponsibleforthis.
Thesuddendestructionofthetwomajorcivilisations–thoseoftheAztecsandtheIncas–inAmerica
highlightsthecontrastsbetweenthetwoculturesincombat.BothwiththeAztecsandtheIncas,thenature
of warfare played a crucial role in terrorising local inhabitants psychologically and physically. The
contest also revealedafundamental difference invalues. The Spanish avarice for gold and silver was
incomprehensibletothenatives.
Thecapitalistsystemofproductionisoneinwhichthemeansofproductionanddistributionareownedby
individualsorcorporatesandwherecompetitorsparticipateinafreemarket.
SketchofatypicalSpanishtownshipinSouthAmerica.
Theenslavementofthepopulationwasasharpreminderofthebrutalityoftheencounter.Slaverywasnot
anewidea,buttheSouthAmericanexperiencewasnewinthatitaccompaniedtheemergingcapitalist
system of production. Working conditions were horrific, but the Spanish regarded the exploitation as
essentialtotheireconomicgain.
ThesilverminesinPerubegantofunctioninthe1550s,andthemonkDominigodeSantoTomasreportedtotheCounciloftheIndiesthat
thePotosiwasamouthofhellwhichswallowedIndiansbythethousandseveryyearandthatgreedymineownerstreatedthemlikestray
animals.
In1601,PhilipIIofSpainpubliclybannedforcedlabour,butmadearrangementsbyasecretdecreefor
itscontinuation.Thingscametoaheadwiththelawof1609,whichgavefullfreedomtothelocalpeople,
Christian and non-Christian alike. The European settlers were enraged, and within two years they had
forcedthekingtorevokethislawandtopermitenslavementonceagain.
As new economic activities began – cattle farming on lands cleared of forests, and mining after the
discoveryofgoldin1700 –thedemandforcheap labourcontinued. It was clearthatthelocalpeople
would resist enslavement. The alternative was to turn to Africa. Between the 1550s and 1880s (when
slavery was abolished in Brazil) over 3,600,000 African slaves were imported into Brazil. This was
almost half the total number of African slaves imported into the Americas. In 1750, there were
individualswhoownedasmanyasathousandslaves.
Map3:Africa,indicatingregionsfromwhereslaveswerecaptured
From the early debates in the 1780s on abolishing slavery, there were those who argued that slavery
existedinAfricapriortotheentryoftheEuropeans,indeedslavesformedthebulkofthelabour-forcein
thestatesbeingformedinAfricafromthefifteenthcentury.TheyalsopointedoutthatEuropeantraders
werehelpedbyAfricanswhohelpedcaptureyoungmenandwomentobesoldasslaves,inreturnfor
cropsimportedfromSouthAmerica(maize,maniocandcassava,whichbecametheirstaplefoods).In
his autobiography (1789), the freed slave Olaudah Equiano replied to these arguments by saying
thatslavesinAfricaweretreatedaspartofthefamily.Inthe1940s,inhisbookCapitalismandSlavery,
Eric Williams was one of the first modern historians to initiate a reassessment of the suffering
experiencedbyAfricanslaves.
Epilogue
In the earlynineteenth century,European settlers intheSouthAmericancoloniesweretorebelagainst
Spain and Portugal and become independent countries, just as in 1776 the thirteen North American
coloniesrebelledagainstBritainandformedtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
SouthAmericatodayisalsocalledLatinAmerica’.ThisisbecauseSpanishandPortuguese,twoofthe
main languages of the continent, are part of the Latin family of languages. The inhabitants are mostly
native European (called Creole), European, and African by origin. Most of them are Catholics. Their
culturehasmanyelementsofnativetraditionsmixedwithEuropeanones.
Exercises
Answerinbrief
1.ComparethecivilisationoftheAztecswiththatoftheMesopotamians.
2.WhatwerethenewdevelopmentshelpingEuropeannavigationinthefifteenthcentury?
3. Give reasons for Spain and Portugal being the first in the fifteenth century to venture across the
Atlantic.
4.WhatnewfooditemsweretransmittedfromSouthAmericatotherestoftheworld?
Answerinashortessay
5.WriteanaccountofthejourneyofanAfricanboyofseventeencapturedandtakentoBrazilasaslave.
6.Howdidthe‘discoveryofSouthAmericaleadtothedevelopmentofEuropeancolonialism?