

ChapterIII

CHANGINGTRADITIONS

TheThreeOrders

ChangingCulturalTraditions

ConfrontationofCultures



ChangingTraditions

We have seen how, by the ninth century, large parts of Asia and America witnessed the growth

and expansion of great empires – some nomadic, some based on well-developed cities and trading

networksthatcentredonthem.ThedifferencebetweentheMacedonian,RomanandArabempiresandthe

onesthatprecededthem(theEgyptian,Assyrian,Chinese,Mauryan)wasthattheycoveredgreaterareas

ofterritory,andwerecontinentalortranscontinentalinnature.TheMongolempirewassimilar.

Differentculturalencounterswerecrucialtowhattookplace.Thearrivalofempireswasalmostalways

sudden,buttheywerealmostalwaystheresultofchangesthathadbeentakingplaceoveralongtimein

thecoreofwhatwouldbecomeanempire.

Traditionsinworldhistorycouldchangeindifferentways.InwesternEuropeduringtheperiodfromthe

ninth to the seventeenth centuries, much that we connect with modern times evolved slowly – the

development of scientific knowledge based on experiment rather than religious belief, serious thought

about the organisation of government, with attention to the creation of civil services, parliaments and

different codes of law, improvements in technology that was used in industry and agriculture. The

consequencesofthesechangescouldbefeltwithgreatforceoutsideEurope.

Aswehaveseen,bythefifthcenturyce,theRomanEmpireinthewesthaddisintegrated.Inwesternand

centralEurope,theremainsoftheRomanEmpirewereslowlyadaptedtotheadministrativerequirements

andneedsoftribesthathadestablishedkingdomsthere.However,urbancentresweresmallerinwestern

Europethanfurthereast.

By the ninth century, the commercial and urban centres – Aix, London, Rome, Sienna – though small,

couldnotbedismissed.Fromtheninthtotheeleventhcenturies,thereweremajordevelopmentsinthe

countryside in western Europe. The Church and royal government developed a combination of Roman

institutions with the customary rules of tribes. The finest example was the empire of Charlemagne in

western and central Europe at the beginning of the ninth century. Even after its rapid collapse, urban

centresandtradingnetworkspersisted,albeitunderheavyattackfromHungarians,Vikingsandothers.

Whathappenedwascalled‘feudalism’.Feudalismwasmarkedbyagriculturalproductionaroundcastles

and‘manorhouses’,wherelordsofthemanorpossessedlandthatwascultivatedbypeasants(serfs)who

pledgedthemloyalty,goodsandservices.Theselordsinturnpledgedtheirloyaltytogreaterlordswho

were‘vassals’ofkings.TheCatholicChurch(centredonthepapacy)supportedthisstateofaffairsand

itself possessed land. In a world where uncertainties of life, poor sense of medicine and low life

expectancywerecommon,theChurchshowedpeoplehowtobehavesothatlifeafterdeathatleastwould

betolerable.MonasterieswerecreatedwhereGod-fearingpeoplecoulddevotethemselvestotheservice

ofGodinthewayCatholicchurchmenthoughtfit.Equally,churcheswerepartofanetworkofscholarship

thatranfromtheMuslimstatesofSpaintoByzantium,andtheyprovidedthepettykingsofEuropewitha

senseoftheopulenceoftheeasternMediterraneanandbeyond.

The influence of commerce and towns in the feudal order came to evolve and change encouraged by

Mediterranean entrepreneurs in Venice and Genoa (from the twelfth century). Their ships carried on a

growingtradewithMuslimstatesandtheremainsoftheRomanEmpireintheeast.Attractedbythelure

of wealth in these areas, and inspiredby theidea of freeing ‘holyplaces’ associatedwith Christfrom

Muslims,EuropeankingsreinforcedlinksacrosstheMediterraneanduringthe‘crusades’.Tradewithin

Europeimproved(centredonfairsandtheportcitiesoftheBalticSeaandtheNorthSeaandstimulated

byagrowingpopulation).

ThePalaceofthePopes,inAvignon,afourteenth-centurytowninsouthFrance.

ThePalaceoftheDoge,inVenice,fifteenthcentury.

Opportunitiesforcommercial expansioncoincidedwith changingattitudesconcerningthevalue oflife.

RespectforhumanbeingsandlivingthingsthatmarkedmuchofIslamicartandliterature,andtheexample

of Greek art andideas thatcame toEuropefrom Byzantine trade encouraged Europeans to take a new

lookat theworld.Andfrom thefourteenth century (in whatis calledthe ‘Renaissance’), especially in

northItaliantowns,thewealthybecamelessconcernedwithlifeafterdeathandmorewiththewondersof

lifeitself.Sculptors,paintersandwritersbecameinterestedinhumanityandthediscoveryoftheworld.

Bytheendofthefifteenthcentury,thisstateofaffairsencouragedtravelanddiscoveryasneverbefore.

Voyagesofdiscoverytookplace.SpaniardsandPortuguese,whohadtradedwithnorthernAfrica,pushed

furtherdownthecoastofwesternAfrica,finallyleadingtojourneysaroundtheCapeofGoodHopeto

India–whichhadagreatreputationinEuropeasasourceofspicesthatwereingreatdemand.Columbus

attemptedtofindawesternroutetoIndiaandin1492reachedtheislandswhichtheEuropeanscalledthe

WestIndies.OtherexplorerstriedtofindanorthernroutetoIndiaandChinaviatheArctic.

Europeantravellersencounteredarangeofdifferentpeoplesinthecourseoftheirjourneys.Inpart,they

wereinterestedinlearningfromthem.ThepapacyencouragedtheworkoftheNorthAfricangeographer

andtravellerHasanal-Wazzan(laterknowninEuropeasLeoAfricanus),whowrotethefirstgeography

ofAfricaintheearlysixteenthcenturyforPopeLeoX.JesuitchurchmenobservedandwroteonJapanin

thesixteenthcentury.AnEnglishman,WillAdams,becameafriendand

counselloroftheJapaneseShogun,TokugawaIeyasu,intheearlyseventeenthcentury.Asinthecaseof

Hasanal-Wazzan,peoplesthattheEuropeansencounteredintheAmericasoftentookagreatinterestin

themandsometimes workedfor them. Forexample an Aztecwoman – laterknown asDona Marina –

befriendedtheSpanishconquerorofMexico,Cortes,andinterpretedandnegotiatedforhim.

In their encounters, Europeans were sometimes cautious, self-effacing and observant, even as they

frequently attempted to establish trade monopolies and enforce their authority by force of arms as the

Portuguese attempted to do in the Indian Ocean after Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut (present-day

Kozhikode)in1498.Inothercases,theywereoverbearing,aggressiveandcruelandadoptedanattitude

ofsuperioritytothosetheymet,consideringsuchpeopleignorant.TheCatholicChurchencouragedboth

attitudes.TheChurchwasthecentreforthestudyofotherculturesandlanguages,butencouragedattacks

onpeopleitsawas‘un-Christian’.

From the point of view of non-Europeans, the encounter with Europe varied. For much of the Islamic

landsandIndiaandChina,though,Europeansremainedacuriosityuntiltheendoftheseventeenthcentury.

Theywereperceivedashardytradersandseamenwhohadlittletocontributetotheirsenseofthelarger

world.TheJapaneselearntsomeoftheadvantagesofEuropeantechnologyquickly–forinstance,they

hadbegunlarge-scaleproductionofmusketsbythelatesixteenthcentury.IntheAmericas,enemiesofthe

Aztec empire sometimes used Europeans to challenge the power of the Aztecs. At the same time the

diseasestheEuropeansbroughtdevastatedthepopulations,leadingtothedeathofover90percentofthe

peopleinsomeareasbytheendofthesixteenthcentury.

Timelineiii

(c.1300to1700)

TheperiodunderconsiderationwitnessedseveralmajordevelopmentsinEurope,includingchanges in

agriculture and the lives of peasants. It was also marked by a range of cultural developments. This

timeline draws attention to contacts between continents, stimulated in many instancesby the growth of

trade.Theimpactofthesecontactswasvaried–whileideas,inventionsandgoodsweresharedacross

continents,therewasalso constantwarfarebetweenkingdomstocontrol land,resourcesand access to

traderoutes.Asaresult,menandwomenwereoftendisplacedandenslaved,ifnotexterminated.Inmany

ways,thelivesofpeopleweretransformedbeyondrecognition.



ACTIVITY

You may have noticed that the column on Australia/Pacific Islands has very few

recorded dates.Thisisbecausethe peoplesintheseareasoftenusedotherformsof

recording, including paintings such as the one shown above*. List at least one

event/process from each of the preceding five columns which an Australian painter

mayhavefoundworthrecording.Listanotherfivewhichmayhaveseemedirrelevant

toher/him.

Theme6

THETHREEORDERS

Inthischapter,weshalllearnaboutthesocio-economicandpoliticalchangeswhichoccurredinwestern

Europebetween the ninth and sixteenth centuries. After the fall of the Roman Empire, many groups of

GermanicpeoplefromeasternandcentralEuropeoccupiedregionsofItaly,SpainandFrance.

In the absence of any unifying political force, military conflict was frequent, and the need to gather

resourcestoprotectone’slandbecameveryimportant.Socialorganisationwasthereforecentredonthe

control of land. Its features were derived from both imperial Roman traditions and German customs.

Christianity,theofficialreligionoftheRomanEmpirefromthefourthcentury,survivedthecollapseof

Rome,andgraduallyspreadtocentralandnorthernEurope.TheChurchalsobecameamajorlandholder

andpoliticalpowerinEurope.The‘threeorders’,thefocusofthischapter,arethreesocialcategories:

Christianpriests,landowningnoblesandpeasants.Thechangingrelationshipsbetweenthesethreegroups

wasanimportantfactorinshapingEuropeanhistoryforseveralcenturies.

Overthelast100years,Europeanhistorianshavedonedetailedworkonthehistoriesofregions,evenof

individualvillages.Thiswaspossiblebecause,fromthemedievalperiod,thereisalotofmaterialinthe

formofdocuments,detailsoflandownership,pricesandlegalcases:forexample,churcheskeptrecords

ofbirths,marriagesanddeaths,whichhavemadeitpossibletounderstandthestructureoffamiliesandof

population. The inscriptions in churches give information about traders’ associations, and songs and

storiesgiveasenseoffestivalsandcommunityactivities.

All these can be used by historians to understand economic and social life, and changes over a long

period(likeincreaseinpopulation)oroverashortperiod(likepeasantrevolts).

Of the many scholars in France who have worked on feudalism, one of the earliest was Bloch. Marc

Bloch

(1886–1944)wasoneofagroupof scholarswhoarguedthathistoryconsistedofmuchmore thanjust

politicalhistory,internationalrelationsandthelivesofgreatpeople.Heemphasisedtheimportanceof

geographyinshapinghumanhistory,andtheneedtounderstandthecollectivebehaviourorattitudesof

groupsofpeople.Bloch’sFeudalSocietyisaboutEuropean,particularlyFrench,societybetween900and

1300,describinginremarkabledetailsocialrelationsandhierarchies,landmanagementandthepopular

cultureoftheperiod.

HiscareerwascutshorttragicallywhenhewasshotbytheNazisintheSecondWorldWar.

AnIntroductiontoFeudalism

The term ‘feudalism’ has been usedby historians todescribe theeconomic, legal, political and social

relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era. Derived from the German word ‘feud’,

whichmeans‘apieceofland’,itreferstothekindofsocietythatdevelopedinmedievalFrance,andlater

inEnglandandinsouthernItaly.

Theterm‘medievalera’referstotheperiodinEuropeanhistorybetweenthefifthandthefifteenthcenturies.

Map1:WesternEurope

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In an economic sense, feudalism refers to a kind of agricultural production which is based on the

relationshipbetweenlordsandpeasants.Thelattercultivatedtheirownlandaswellasthatofthelord.

The peasants performed labour services for the lords, who in exchange provided military protection.

They also had extensive judicial control over peasants. Thus, feudalism went beyond the economic to

coverthesocialandpoliticalaspectsoflifeaswell.

AlthoughitsrootshavebeentracedtopracticesthatexistedintheRomanEmpireandduringtheageof

theFrenchkingCharlemagne(742-814),feudalismasanestablishedwayoflifeinlargepartsofEurope

maybesaidtohaveemergedlater,intheeleventhcentury.

FranceandEngland

Gaul,aprovinceoftheRomanEmpire,hadtwoextensivecoastlines,mountainranges,longrivers,forests

andlargetractsofplainssuitedtoagriculture.

TheFranks,aGermanictribe,gavetheirnametoGaul,makingit‘France’.Fromthesixthcentury,this

regionwasakingdomruledbyFrankish/Frenchkings,whowereChristian.TheFrenchhadverystrong

linkswiththeChurch,whichwerefurtherstrengthenedwhenin800thePopegaveKingCharlemagnethe

titleof‘HolyRomanEmperor’,toensurehissupport*.

Across a narrow channel lay the island of England–Scotland, which in the eleventh century was

conqueredbyadukefromtheFrenchprovinceofNormandy.

*TheheadoftheEasternChurch,inConstantinople,hadasimilarrelationshipwiththeByzantineemperor.

TheThreeOrders

Frenchpriestsbelievedintheconceptthatpeopleweremembersofoneofthethree‘orders’,depending

ontheirwork.Abishopstated,‘Herebelow,somepray,othersfight,stillotherswork...’Thus,thethree

ordersofsocietywerebroadlytheclergy,thenobilityandthepeasantry.

Inthetwelfthcentury,AbbessHildegardofBingenwrote:‘Whowouldthinkofherdinghisentirecattleinonestable–cows,donkeys,

sheep,goats,withoutdifference?Thereforeitisnecessarytoestablishdifferenceamonghumanbeings,sothattheydonotdestroyeach

other…Godmakesdistinctionsamonghisflock,inheavenasonearth.Allarelovedbyhim,yetthereisnoequalityamongthem.

‘Abbey’ is derived from the Syriac abba, meaning father. An abbey was governed by an abbot or an

abbess.

TheSecondOrder:TheNobility

Priestsplacedthemselvesinthefirstorder,andnoblesinthesecond.Thenobilityhad,inreality,acentral

roleinsocialprocesses.Thisisbecausetheycontrolledland.Thiscontrolwastheoutcomeofapractice

called‘vassalage’.

ThekingsofFrancewerelinkedtothepeopleby‘vassalage’,similartothepracticeamongtheGermanic

peoples,ofwhomtheFrankswereone.Thebiglandowners–thenobles–werevassalsoftheking,and

peasantswerevassalsofthelandowners.Anoblemanacceptedthekingashisseigneur(senior)andthey

madeamutualpromise:theseigneur/lord(‘lord’wasderivedfromawordmeaningonewhoprovided

bread)wouldprotectthevassal,whowouldbeloyaltohim.Thisrelationshipinvolvedelaboraterituals

and exchange ofvowstaken on the Bible in a church. At this ceremony, thevassalreceived a written

charterorastafforevenaclodofearthasasymbolofthelandthatwasbeinggiventohimbyhismaster.

Thenobleenjoyedaprivilegedstatus.Hehadabsolutecontroloverhisproperty,inperpetuity.Hecould

raisetroopscalled‘feudallevies’.Thelordheldhisowncourtsofjusticeandcouldevencoinhisown

money.

Hewasthelordofallthepeoplesettledonhisland.Heownedvasttractsoflandwhichcontainedhis

owndwellings,hisprivatefieldsandpasturesandthehomesandfieldsofhistenant-peasants.Hishouse

was called a manor. Hisprivate landswere cultivated by peasants,who werealso expected to act as

foot-soldiersinbattlewhenrequired,inadditiontoworkingontheirownfarms.

Frenchnoblesstartingforahunt,fifteenth-centurypainting.

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TheManorialEstate

A lord had his own manor-house. He also controlled villages – some lords controlled hundreds of

villages – where peasants lived. A small manorial estate could contain a dozen families, while larger

estatesmightincludefiftyorsixty.Almosteverythingneededfordailylifewasfoundontheestate:grain

was growninthefields,blacksmithsandcarpentersmaintainedthe lord’simplements andrepairedhis

weapons, while stonemasons looked after his buildings. Women spun and wove fabric, and children

worked in the lord’s wine-presses. The estate had extensive woodlands and forests where the lords

hunted.Theycontainedpastureswherehiscattleandhishorsesgrazed.Therewasachurchontheestate

andacastlefordefence.

Fromthethirteenthcentury,somecastlesweremadebiggerforuseasaresidenceforaknight’sfamily.In

fact,inEnglandcastleswerepracticallyunknownbeforetheNormanConquest,anddevelopedascentres

ofpoliticaladministrationandmilitarypowerunderthefeudalsystem.

Amanorialestate,England,thirteenthcentury.

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The manor could not be completely self-sufficient because salt, millstones and metalware had to be

obtainedfromoutsidesources.Thoselordswhowantedaluxuriouslifestyleandwerekeentobuyrich

furnishings,musicalinstrumentsandornamentsnotlocallyproduced,hadtogetthesefromotherplaces.

ACTIVITY1

Discuss social hierarchies based on different criteria: occupation, language, wealth,

education.ComparemedievalFrancewithMesopotamiaandtheRomanEmpire.

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TheKnights

Fromtheninthcentury,therewerefrequentlocalisedwarsinEurope.Theamateurpeasant-soldierswere

not sufficient, and good cavalry was needed. This led to the growing importance of a new section of

people–theknights.Theywerelinkedtothelords,justasthelatterwerelinked totheking.Thelord

gavetheknightapieceofland(called‘fief’)andpromisedtoprotectit.Thefiefcouldbeinherited.It

extended to anything between 1,000 and 2,000 acres or more, including a housefor theknightandhis

family,achurchandotherestablishmentstohousehisdependants,besidesawatermillandawine-press.

Asinthefeudalmanor,thelandofthefiefwascultivatedbypeasants.Inexchange,theknightpaidhis

lordaregularfeeandpromisedtofightforhiminwar.Tokeepuptheirskills,knightsspenttimeeachday

fencingandpractising tacticswithdummies.Aknightmightservemore thanonelord,buthisforemost

loyaltywastohisownlord.

In France, from thetwelfthcentury, minstrels travelledfrom manorto manor, singing songs which told

stories–partlyhistorical,partlyinvented–aboutbravekingsandknights.Inanagewhennottoomany

peoplecouldreadandmanuscriptswerefew,thesetravellingbardswereverypopular.Manymanorshad

anarrowbalconyabovethelargehallwherethepeopleofthemanorgatheredformeals.Thiswasthe

minstrels’gallery,fromwheresingersentertainednobleswhiletheyfeasted.

‘Ifmydearlordisslain,hisfateI’llshare,

Ifheishanged,thenhangmebyhisside.

Iftothestakehegoes,withhimI’llburn;

Andifhe’sdrowned,thenletmedrownwithhim.’

–DoondeMayence,athirteenth-centuryFrenchpoem(tobesung)recountingtheadventuresofknights.

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TheFirstOrder:TheClergy

TheCatholicChurchhaditsownlaws,ownedlandsgiventoitbyrulers,andcouldlevytaxes.Itwasthus

averypowerfulinstitutionwhichdidnotdependontheking.AttheheadofthewesternChurchwasthe

Pope.HelivedinRome.TheChristiansinEuropewereguidedbybishopsandclerics–whoconstituted

thefirst‘order’.Mostvillageshadtheirownchurch,wherepeopleassembledeverySundaytolistento

thesermonbythepriestandtopraytogether.

Everyonecouldnotbecomeapriest.Serfswerebanned,aswerethephysicallychallenged.Womencould

notbecomepriests.Menwhobecamepriestscouldnotmarry.Bishopswerethereligiousnobility.Like

lords who owned vast landed estates, the bishops also had the use of vast estates, and lived in grand

palaces.TheChurchwasentitledtoatenthshareofwhateverthepeasantsproducedfromtheirlandover

thecourseoftheyear,calleda‘tithe’.Moneyalsocameintheformofendowmentsmadebytherichfor

theirownwelfareandthewelfareoftheirdeceasedrelativesintheafterlife.

SomeoftheimportantceremoniesconductedbytheChurchcopiedformalcustomsofthefeudalelite.The

actofkneelingwhilepraying,withhandsclaspedandheadbowed,wasanexactreplicaofthewayin

whichaknightconductedhimselfwhiletakingvowsofloyaltytohislord.Similarly,theuseoftheterm

‘lord’forGodwasanotherexampleoffeudalculturethatfounditswayintothepracticesoftheChurch.

Thus,thereligiousandthelayworldsoffeudalismsharedmanycustomsandsymbols.

Monks

ApartfromtheChurch,devoutChristianshadanotherkindoforganisation.Somedeeplyreligiouspeople

chosetoliveisolatedlives,incontrasttoclericswholivedamongstpeopleintownsandvillages.They

lived in religious communities called abbeys or monasteries, often in places very far from human

habitation. Twoof the morewell-known monasteries werethoseestablished by St BenedictinItaly in

529andofClunyinBurgundyin910.

Monkstookvowstoremainintheabbeyfortherestoftheirlivesandtospendtheirtimeinprayer,study

and manual labour, like farming. Unlike priesthood, this lifewas open to both men and women – men

becamemonksandwomennuns.Exceptinafewcases,allabbeysweresingle-sexcommunities,thatis,

therewereseparateabbeysformenandwomen.Likepriests,monksandnunsdidnotmarry.

From small communities of 10 or 20 men/women, monasteries grew to communities often of several

hundred,withlargebuildingsandlandedestates,withattachedschoolsorcollegesandhospitals.They

contributedtothedevelopmentofthearts.AbbessHildegard(seep.135)wasagiftedmusician,anddid

muchtodevelopthepracticeofcommunitysingingofprayersinchurch.Fromthethirteenthcentury,some

groupsofmonks–calledfriars–chosenottobebasedinamonasterybuttomovefromplacetoplace,

preachingtothepeopleandlivingoncharity.

ACTIVITY2

Discuss examples of expected patterns of behaviour between people of different

sociallevels,inamedievalmanor,apalaceandinaplaceofworship.

Theword‘monastery’isderivedfromtheGreekword‘monos’,meaningsomeonewholivesalone.



StMichael’sBenedictineabbeyinFarnborough,England.

InBenedictinemonasteries,therewasamanuscriptwith73chaptersofruleswhichwerefollowedbymonksformanycenturies.Here

aresomeoftherulestheyhadtofollow:

ABenedictinemonkworkingonamanuscript,woodcut.

Chapter6:Permissiontospeakshouldrarelybegrantedtomonks.

Chapter7:Humilitymeansobedience.

Chapter33:Nomonkshouldownprivateproperty.

Chapter47:Idlenessistheenemyofthesoul,sofriarsandsistersshouldbeoccupiedatcertaintimesinmanuallabour,andatfixedhours

insacredreading.

Chapter48:Themonasteryshouldbelaidoutinsuchawaythatallnecessitiesbefoundwithinitsbounds:water,mill,garden,workshops.



Bythefourteenthcentury,therewasagrowinguncertaintyaboutthevalueandpurposeofmonasticism.In

England, Langland’s poem, PiersPlowman (c.1360-70), contrasted the ease and luxury of the lives of

somemonkswiththe‘purefaith’of‘simpleploughmenandshepherdsandpoorcommonlabourers.’Also

inEngland,ChaucerwrotetheCanterburyTales(seeboxbelow)whichhadcomicportraitsofanun,a

monkandafriar.

TheChurchandSociety

Though Europeans became Christian, they still held on to some of their old beliefs in magic and folk

traditions.ChristmasandEasterbecameimportantdatesfromthefourthcentury.Christ’sbirth,celebrated

on 25 December, replaced an old pre-Roman festival, the date of which was calculated by the solar

calendar.EastermarkedthecrucifixionofChristandhisrisingfromthedead.Butitsdatewasnotafixed

one,becauseitreplacedanolderfestivaltocelebratethecomingofspringafteralongwinter,datedby

thelunarcalendar.Traditionally,onthatday,peopleofeachvillageusedtomakeatouroftheirvillage

lands.WiththecomingofChristianity,theycontinuedtodothis,buttheycalledthevillagethe‘parish’

(the area under the supervision of one priest). Overworked peasants welcomed ‘holy days’/holidays

becausetheywerenotexpectedtoworkthen.Thesedaysweremeantforprayer,butpeopleusuallyspent

agoodpartofthemhavingfunandfeasting.

*Amonkwhotravelstodistantshrines.

PilgrimagewasanimportantpartofaChristian’slife,andmanypeoplewentonlongjourneystoshrines

ofmartyrsortobigchurches.

‘WheninAprilthesweetshowersfall

AndpiercethedroughtofMarchtotheroot

Andthesmallbirdsaremakingmelody

Thatsleepawaythenightwithopeneye…

(SoNaturepricksthemandtheirheartengages);

Thenpeoplelongtogoonpilgrimages,

Andpalmers*longtoseektheforeignshrines

Offar-offsaints,reveredinvariouslands.

Andespeciallyfromeveryshire

OfEngland,toCanterburytheymaketheirjourney.’

–GeoffreyChaucer(c.1340–1400),TheCanterburyTales.ThiswaswritteninMiddleEnglish,andtheverseisatranslationinmodern

English.

TheThirdOrder:Peasants,FreeandUnfree

Let us now turn to the vast majority of people, namely, those who sustained the first two orders.

Cultivatorswereoftwokinds:freepeasantsandserfs(fromtheverb‘toserve’).

AnEnglishploughman,sixteenth-centurysketch.

Freepeasantsheldtheirfarmsastenantsofthelord.Themenhadtorendermilitaryservice(atleastforty

dayseveryyear).Peasantfamilieshadtosetasidecertaindaysoftheweek,usuallythreebutoftenmore,

whentheywouldgotothelord’sestateandworkthere.Theoutputfromsuchlabour,calledlabour-rent,

wouldgodirectlytothelord.Inaddition,theycouldberequiredtodootherunpaidlabourservices,like

diggingditches,gatheringfirewood,buildingfencesandrepairingroadsandbuildings.Besideshelpingin

thefields,womenandchildrenhadtodoothertasks.Theyspun thread,wovecloth,madecandlesand

pressed grapes to prepare wine for the lord’s use. There was one direct tax called ‘taille’ that kings

sometimesimposedonpeasants(theclergyandnobleswereexemptedfrompayingthis).

Serfscultivated plots of land,but thesebelongedto the lord. Much of theproducefrom this had to be

given to the lord. They also had to work on the land which belonged exclusively to the lord. They

received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord’s permission. The lord claimed a

number of monopolies at the expense of his serfs.Serfs could use only their lord’s mill to grind their

flour,hisoventobaketheirbread,andhiswine-pressestodistilwineandbeer.Thelordcoulddecide

whomaserfshouldmarry,ormightgivehisblessingtotheserf’schoice,butonpaymentofafee.

England

FeudalismdevelopedinEnglandfromtheeleventhcentury.

TheAnglesandSaxons,fromcentralEurope,hadsettledinEnglandinthesixthcentury.Thecountry’s

name,England, is a variant of ‘Angle-land’. In the eleventhcentury, William,the Duke of Normandy*,

crossedtheEnglishChannelwithanarmyanddefeatedtheSaxonkingofEngland.Fromthistime,France

andEnglandwereoftenatwarbecauseofdisputesoverterritoryandtrade.

*ThepresentQueenofEnglandisdescendedfromWilliamI.

HeverCastle,England,thirteenthcentury.

William Ihadthelandmapped,anddistributedit insectionsto180Normannobleswhohadmigrated

withhim.Thelordsbecamethechieftenantsof the king,andwereexpectedtogivehimmilitaryhelp.

Theywereobligedtosupplyacertainnumberofknightstotheking.Theysoonbegantogiftsomeoftheir

ownlandstoknightswhowouldservethemjustastheyinturnservedtheking.Theycouldnot,however,

use their knights for private warfare, which was forbidden in England. Anglo-Saxon peasants became

tenantsofvariouslevelsoflandholders.

FactorsAffectingSocialandEconomicRelations

Whilemembersofthefirsttwoorderssawthesocialsystemasstableandunchanging,therewereseveral

processeswhichweretransformingthesystem.Someofthese,suchaschangesintheenvironment,were

gradualandalmostimperceptible.Othersweremoredramatic,likethechangesinagriculturaltechnology

andlanduse.Theseinturnwereshapedbyandhadaneffectonthesocialandeconomictiesbetween

lordsandvassals.Letusexaminetheseprocessesonebyone.

TheEnvironment

From the fifth to the tenth centuries, most of Europe was covered with vast forests. Thus the land

availablefor agriculturewas limited.Also,peasants dissatisfied with their conditionscould fleefrom

oppressionandtakerefugeintheforest.Europewasundergoinganintenselycoldclimaticspellinthis

period. This led tosevere and prolonged winters, a shortened growing season for crops, and reduced

yieldsfromagriculture.

Fromtheeleventhcentury,Europeenteredawarmphase.Averagetemperaturesincreased,whichhada

profound effect on agriculture. Peasants now had a longer growing season and the soil, now less

subjectedtofrost,couldbemoreeasilyploughed.Environmentalhistorianshavenotedthattherewasa

significantreceding of theforest line in many parts of Europe. This made expansion of the area under

cultivationpossible.

LandUse

Initially, agricultural technology was very primitive. The only mechanical aid available to the peasant

wasthewoodenplough,drawnbya

teamofoxen.Thisploughcouldatbestscratchthesurfaceoftheearthandwasunabletofullydrawout

thenaturalproductivityofthe

soil.Agriculturewasthereforeverylabourintensive.Fieldshadtobe

dugbyhand,oftenonceinfouryears,andenormousmanuallabourwasrequired.

Also, an ineffective method of crop rotation was in use. The land was divided in half, one field was

plantedinautumnwithwinterwheat,whiletheotherfieldwasleftfallow.Ryewasplantedonthispiece

of fallow land the next year while the other half was put to fallow. With this system, the soil slowly

deteriorated,andfamineswerenotuncommon.Chronicmalnutritionalternatedwithdevastatingfamines

andlifewasdifficultforthepoor.

Despitethesehardships,thelordswereanxioustomaximisetheirincomes.Sinceitwasnotpossibleto

increase output from the land, the peasants were forced to bring under cultivation all the land in the

manorialestate,andspendmoretimedoingthisthantheywerelegallyboundtodo.Thepeasantsdidnot

bowquietlytooppression.Sincetheycouldnotprotestopenly,theyresortedtopassiveresistance.They

spentmoretimecultivatingtheirownfields,andkeptmuchoftheproductofthatlabourforthemselves.

Theyalsoavoidedperformingunpaidextraservices.Theycameintoconflictwiththelordsoverpasture

andforestlands,andsawtheselandsasresourcestobeusedbythewholecommunity,whilethelords

treatedtheseastheirprivateproperty.

NewAgriculturalTechnology

Bytheeleventhcentury,thereisevidenceofseveraltechnologicalchanges.Insteadofthebasicwooden

ploughs,cultivatorsbeganusingheavyiron-tippedploughsandmould-boards.Theseploughscoulddig

muchdeeperandthemould-boardsturnedthetopsoilproperly.Withthisthenutrientsfromthesoilwere

betterutilised.

The methods of harnessing animals to the plough improved. Instead of the neck-harness, the shoulder-

harnesscameintouse.Thisenabledanimalstoexertgreaterpower.Horseswerenowbettershod,with

iron horseshoes, which prevented foot decay. There was increased use of wind and water energy for

agriculture.Morewater-poweredandwind-poweredmillsweresetupalloverEuropeforpurposeslike

millingcornandpressinggrapes.

Therewerealsochangesinlanduse.Themostrevolutionaryonewastheswitchfromatwo-fieldtoa

three-fieldsystem.Inthis,peasantscoulduseafieldtwoyearsoutofthreeiftheyplanteditwithonecrop

inautumnandadifferentcropinspringayearandahalflater.Thatmeantthatfarmerscouldbreaktheir

holdingsintothreefields.Theycouldplantonewithwheatorryeinautumnforhumanconsumption.The

secondcouldbeusedinspringtoraisepeas,beansandlentilsforhumanuse,andoatsandbarleyforthe

horses.Thethirdfieldlayfallow.Eachyeartheyrotatedtheuseamongthethreefields.

Withtheseimprovements,therewasanalmostimmediateincreaseintheamountoffoodproducedfrom

eachunitofland.Foodavailability

doubled.Thegreateruseofplantslikepeasandbeansmeantmorevegetableproteinsinthedietofthe

average European and a better source of fodder for their animals. For cultivators, it meant better

opportunities.Theycouldnowproducemorefoodfromlessland.Theaveragesizeofapeasant’sfarm

shrank from about 100 acres to 20 to 30 acres by thethirteenth century. Holdings which weresmaller

couldbemoreefficientlycultivatedandreducedtheamountoflabourneeded.Thisgavethepeasantstime

forotheractivities.

Someofthesetechnologicalchangescostalotofmoney.Peasantsdidnothaveenoughmoneytosetup

watermillsandwindmills.Thereforetheinitiativewastakenbythelords.Butpeasantswereabletotake

theinitiativeinmanythings,suchasextendingarableland.Theyalsoswitchedtothethree-fieldrotation

ofcrops,andsetupsmallforgesandsmithiesinthevillages,whereiron-tippedploughsandhorseshoes

weremadeandrepairedcheaply.

From the eleventh century, the personal bonds that had been the basis of feudalism were weakening,

becauseeconomictransactionswerebecomingmoreandmoremoneybased.Lordsfounditconvenientto

ask for rent in cash, not services, and cultivators were selling their crops for money (instead of

exchangingthemforothergoods)totraders,whowouldthentakesuchgoodstobesoldinthetowns.The

increasing use of money began to influence prices, which became higher in times of poor harvests. In

England,forinstance,agriculturalpricesdoubledbetweenthe1270sandthe1320s.

AFourthOrder?NewTownsandTownspeople

Expansioninagriculturewasaccompaniedbygrowthinthreerelatedareas:population,tradeandtowns.

Fromroughly42millionin1000,Europe’spopulationstoodat62millionaround1200and73millionin

1300.Betterfoodmeantalongerlifespan.Bythethirteenthcentury,anaverageEuropeancouldexpectto

live10yearslongerthanintheeighthcentury.Womenandgirlshadshorterlifespanscomparedtomen

becausethelatteratebetterfood.

The towns of the Roman Empire had become deserted and ruined after its fall. But from the eleventh

century,asagricultureincreasedandbecameabletosustainhigherlevelsofpopulation,townsbeganto

grow again. Peasants who had surplus grain to sell needed a place where they could set up a selling

centre and where they could buy tools and cloth. This led to the growth of periodic fairs and small

marketingcentreswhichgraduallydevelopedtown-likefeatures–atownsquare,achurch,roadswhere

merchants built shops and homes, an office where those who governed the town could meet. In other

places,townsgrewaroundlargecastles,bishops’estates,orlargechurches.

Intowns,insteadofservices,peoplepaidataxtothelordswhoownedthelandonwhichthetownstood.

Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from the lord’s control, for young people from

peasantfamilies.

ACTIVITY3

Look carefully at this map and the drawing of a town. What would you notice as

specialfeaturesofmedievalEuropeantowns?Howweretheydifferentfromtownsin

otherplacesandotherperiodsoftime?



Reims,Frenchcathedral-town,seventeenth-centurymap.

‘Townairmakesfree’wasapopularsaying.Manyserfscravingtobefreeranawayandhidintowns.Ifa

serfcouldstayforoneyearandonedaywithouthislorddiscoveringhim,hewouldbecomeafreeman.

Manypeopleintownswerefreepeasantsorescapedserfswhoprovidedunskilledlabour.Shopkeepers

andmerchantswerenumerous.Latertherewasneedforindividualswithspecialisedskills,likebankers

and lawyers.The biggertowns had populations of about30,000. They couldbe said to have formeda

‘fourth’order.

Thebasisofeconomicorganisationwastheguild.Eachcraftorindustrywasorganisedintoaguild,an

association which controlled the quality of the product, its price and its sale. The ‘guild-hall’ was a

featureofeverytown;itwasabuildingforceremonialfunctions,andwheretheheadsofalltheguilds

metformally.Guardspatrolledthetownwallsandmusicianswerecalledtoplayatfeastsandincivic

processions,andinnkeeperslookedaftertravellers.

Bytheeleventhcentury,newtraderouteswithWestAsiaweredeveloping(seeTheme5).Scandinavian

merchantsweresailingsouthfromtheNorthSeatoexchange fursandhunting-hawksforcloth;English

traderscametoselltin.In France, bythetwelfthcentury,commerceandcraftsbegantogrow.Earlier,

craftsmenusedtotravelfrommanortomanor;nowtheyfounditeasiertosettleinoneplacewheregoods

couldbeproducedandtradedforfood.Asthenumberoftownsgrewandtradecontinuedtoexpand,town

merchantsbecamerichandpowerful,andrivalledthepowerofthenobility.

Cathedral-towns

One of thewaysthatrich merchantsspent theirmoneywas bymaking donationsto churches.Fromthe

twelfth century, large churches – called cathedrals – were being built in France. These belonged to

monasteries, but different groups of people contributed to their construction with their own labour,

materialsormoney.Cathedralswerebuiltofstone,andtookmanyyearstocomplete.Astheywerebeing

built,theareaaroundthecathedralsbecamemorepopulated,andwhentheywerecompletedtheybecame

centresofpilgrimage.Thus,smalltownsdevelopedaroundthem.

SalisburyCathedral,England.



Cathedralswere designedso that the priest’svoice couldbeheard clearly withinthehall wherelarge

numbersofpeoplegathered,andsothatthesingingbymonkscouldsoundbeautifulandthechimingbells

calling people to prayer could be heard over a great distance. Stained glass was used for windows.

Duringthedaythesunlightwouldmakethemradiantforpeopleinsidethecathedral,andaftersunsetthe

light of candles would make them visible to people outside. The stained glass windows narrated the

storiesintheBiblethroughpictures,whichilliteratepeoplecould‘read’.

‘Becauseofthe inadequacywhichweoftenfeltonfeastdays,forthenarrownessoftheplaceforcedthewomentorun towards the

altarupontheheadsofthemenwithmuchanguishandnoisyconfusion,[wedecided]toenlargeandamplifythenoblechurch…

We also caused to be painted, by the exquisite hands of many masters from different regions, a splendid variety of new windows…

Because these windows are very valuable on account of their wonderful execution and the profuse expenditure of painted glass and

sapphireglass,weappointedanofficialmastercraftsmanfortheirprotection,andalsoagoldsmith…whowouldreceivetheirallowances,

namely,coinsfromthealtarandflourfromthecommonstorehouseofthebrethren,andwhowouldneverneglecttheirduty,tolookafter

these[worksofart].’

Stained-glasswindow,Chartrescathedral,France,fifteenthcentury.



–AbbotSuger(1081-1151)abouttheAbbeyofStDenis,nearParis.

TheCrisisoftheFourteenthCentury

By the early fourteenth century, Europe’s economic expansion slowed down. This was due to three

factors.

InnorthernEurope,bytheendofthethirteenthcenturythewarmsummersoftheprevious300yearshad

givenwaytobitterlycoldsummers.Seasonsforgrowingcropswerereducedbyamonthanditbecame

difficulttogrowcropsonhigherground.Stormsandoceanicfloodingdestroyedmanyfarmsteads,which

resulted in less income in taxes for governments. The opportunities offered by favourable climatic

conditions before the thirteenth century had led to large-scale reclamation of the land of forests and

pasturesforagriculture.Butintensiveploughinghadexhaustedthesoildespitethepracticeofthethree-

fieldrotationofcrops,becauseclearancewasnotaccompaniedbypropersoilconservation.Theshortage

of pasturage reduced the number of cattle. Population growth was outstripping resources, and the

immediateresultwasfamine.SeverefamineshitEuropebetween1315and1317,followedinthe1320s

bymassivecattledeaths.

Inaddition,tradewashitbyasevereshortageofmetalmoneybecauseofashortfallintheoutputofsilver

minesinAustriaandSerbia.Thisforcedgovernmentstoreducethesilvercontentofthecurrency,andto

mixitwithcheapermetals.

Theworstwasyettocome.Astradeexpandedinthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies,shipscarrying

goods from distant countries had started arriving in European ports. Along with the ships came rats –

carryingthedeadlybubonicplagueinfection(the‘BlackDeath’).WesternEurope,relativelyisolatedin

earliercenturies,washitbytheepidemicbetween1347and1350.Themodernestimateofmortalityin

thatepidemicisthat20percentofthepeopleofthewholeofEuropedied,withsomeplaceslosingas

muchas40percentofthepopulation

‘Howmanyvaliantmen,howmanyfairladies,(had)breakfastwiththeirkinfolkandthesamenightsuppedwiththeirancestorsinthe

nextworld!Theconditionofthepeoplewaspitiabletobehold.Theysickenedbythethousandsdaily,anddiedunattendedandwithout

help. Many died in the open street, others dying in their houses, made it known by the stench of their rotting bodies. Consecrated

churchyardsdidnotsufficefortheburialofthevastmultitudeofbodies,whichwereheapedbythehundredsinvasttrenches,likegoods

inashipsholdandcoveredwithalittleearth.’

–GiovanniBoccaccio(1313-75),Italianauthor.

As trade centres, cities were the hardest hit. In enclosed communities like monasteries and convents,

when one individual contracted the plague, it was not long before everyone did. And in almost every

case,nonesurvived.Theplaguetookitsworsttollamonginfants,theyoungandtheelderly.Therewere

otherrelativelyminorepisodesofplagueinthe1360sand1370s.ThepopulationofEurope,73millionin

1300,stoodreducedto45millionin1400.

Thiscatastrophe,combinedwiththeeconomiccrisis,causedimmensesocialdislocation.Depopulation

resulted in a major shortage of labour. Serious imbalances were created between agriculture and

manufacture,becausetherewerenotenoughpeopletoengageinbothequally.Pricesofagriculturalgoods

dropped as there were fewer people to buy. Wage rates increased because the demand for labour,

particularlyagriculturallabour,roseinEnglandbyasmuchas250percentintheaftermathoftheBlack

Death.Thesurvivinglabourforcecouldnowdemandtwicetheirearlierwages.

SocialUnrest

The income of lords was thus badly hit. It declined as agricultural prices came down and wages of

labourersincreased.Indesperation,theytriedtogiveupthemoney-contractstheyhadenteredinto

andrevivelabour-services.Thiswasviolentlyopposedbypeasants,particularlythebetter-educatedand

moreprosperousones.In1323,peasantsrevoltedinFlanders,in1358inFrance,andin1381

inEngland.

Thoughtheserebellionswereruthlesslycrushed,itissignificantthattheyoccurredwiththemostviolent

intensity in those areas which had experienced the prosperity of the economic expansion – a sign that

peasants were attempting to protect the gains they had made in previous centuries. Despite the severe

repression, the sheer intensity of peasant opposition ensured that the old feudal relations could not be

reimposed. The money economy was too far advanced to be reversed. Therefore, though the lords

succeededincrushingtherevolts,thepeasantsensuredthatthefeudalprivilegesofearlierdayscouldnot

bereinvented.

ACTIVITY4

Read through the events and processes listed with dates, and connect them into a

narrativeaccount.

PoliticalChanges

Developmentsinthepoliticalsphereparalleledsocialprocesses.Inthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,

European kings strengthened their military and financial power. The powerful new states they created

wereassignificant forEuropeasthe economicchangesthatwere occurring. Historianshavetherefore

calledthesekings‘thenewmonarchs’.LouisXIinFrance,MaximilianinAustria,HenryVIIinEngland

andIsabelleandFerdinandinSpainwereabsolutistrulers,whostartedtheprocessoforganisingstanding

armies,apermanentbureaucracyandnationaltaxationand,inSpainandPortugal,begantoplayarolein

Europe’sexpansionoverseas(seeTheme8).

QueenElizabethIofEnglandatapicnic,latesixteenthcentury.



Themostimportantreasonforthetriumphofthesemonarchieswasthesocialchangeswhichhadtaken

place in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The dissolution of the feudal system of lordship and

vassalage,andtheslowrateofeconomicgrowthhadgiventhefirstopportunitytokingstoincreasetheir

control over their powerful and not-so-powerful subjects. Rulers dispensed with the system of feudal

levies for their armies and introduced professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and siege

artillery(seeTheme5)directlyundertheircontrol.Theresistanceof the aristocraciescrumbledinthe

faceofthefirepowerofthekings.

By increasing taxes, monarchs got enough revenues to support larger armies and thus defended and

expandedtheirfrontiersandovercameinternalresistancetoroyalauthority.Centralisation,however,did

not occur without resistance from the aristocracy. A common thread running through all types of

oppositiontothemonarchieswasthequestionoftaxation.InEngland,rebellionsoccurredandwereput

downin1497,1536,1547,1549and1553.InFrance,LouisXI(1461-83)hadtowagealongstruggle

against dukes and princes. Lesser nobles, often members of local assemblies, resisted this royal

usurpationoftheirpowers.The‘religious’warsinFranceinthesixteenthcenturywereinpartacontest

betweenroyalprivilegesandregionalliberties.

NemoursCastle,France,fifteenthcentury.

Thenobilitymanagedatacticalshiftinordertoensuretheirsurvival.Frombeingopponentstothenew

regimes,theyquicklytransformedthemselvesintoloyalists.Itisforthisreasonthatroyalabsolutismhas

beencalledamodifiedformoffeudalism.Preciselythesameclassofpeoplewhohadbeenrulersinthe

feudal system – the lords – continued to dominate the political scene. They were given permanent

positionsintheadministrativeservice.Butthenewregimesweredifferentinsomeimportantways.

Thekingwasnolongerattheapexofapyramidwhereloyaltyhadbeenamatterofpersonaldependence

and trust. He was now at the centre of an elaborate courtier society and a network of patron–client

relationships.Allmonarchies,weakorpowerful,neededthecooperationofthosewhocouldcommand

authority. Patronagebecame the means ofensuring such cooperation. And patronagecould begiven or

obtained by means of money. Therefore money became an important way in which non-aristocratic

elementslikemerchantsand bankerscouldgainaccesstothe court.Theylentmoneytothekings,who

usedittopaythewagesofsoldiers.Rulersthusmadespacefornon-feudalelementsinthestatesystem.

ThelaterhistoryofFranceandEnglandwastobeshapedbythesechangesinthepowerstructures.Inthe

reign of the child-king Louis XIII of France, in 1614, a meeting was held of the French consultative

assembly,knownastheEstates-General(withthreehousestorepresentthethreeestates/orders–clergy,

nobility,andtherest).Afterthis,itwasnotsummonedagainfornearlytwocenturies,till1789,because

thekingsdidnotwanttosharepowerwiththethreeorders.

WhathappenedinEnglandwasverydifferent.EvenbeforetheNormanConquest,theAnglo-Saxonshada

Great Council, which the king had to consult before imposing any tax. This developed into what was

calledtheParliament,whichconsistedoftheHouseofLords,themembersofwhichwerethelordsand

theclergy,andtheHouseofCommons,representingtownsandruralareas.KingCharlesIruledfor11

years(1629–40)withoutcallingParliament.Whenhewasforcedtocallit,becauseheneededmoney,a

sectionofParliamentdecidedtogotowaragainsthim,andlaterexecutedhimandestablishedarepublic.

Thisdidnotlastlong,andmonarchywasrestored,butontheconditionthatParliamentwouldbecalled

regularly.

Today,FrancehasarepublicanformofgovernmentandEnglandhasamonarchy.Thisisbecauseofthe

differentdirectionsthatthehistoriesofthetwocountriestookaftertheseventeenthcentury.

Exercises

Answerinbrief

1.DescribetwofeaturesofearlyfeudalsocietyinFrance.

2.Howdidlong-termchangesinpopulationlevelsaffecteconomyandsocietyinEurope?

3.Whydidknightsbecomeadistinctgroup,andwhendidtheydecline?

4.Whatwasthefunctionofmedievalmonasteries?



Answerinashortessay

5.ImagineanddescribeadayinthelifeofacraftsmaninamedievalFrenchtown.

6.ComparetheconditionsoflifeforaFrenchserfandaRomanslave.



Theme7

ChangingCulturalTraditions

Fromthefourteenthtotheendoftheseventeenthcentury,townsweregrowinginmany countriesof

Europe.Adistinct‘urbanculture’alsodeveloped.Townspeoplebegantothinkofthemselvesasmore

‘civilised’thanruralpeople.Towns–particularlyFlorence,VeniceandRome–becamecentresofart

and learning. Artists and writers werepatronised bythe richand the aristocratic. The inventionof

printingatthesametimemadebooksandprintsavailabletomanypeople,includingthoselivingin

distanttownsorcountries.AsenseofhistoryalsodevelopedinEurope,andpeoplecontrastedtheir

‘modern’worldwiththe‘ancient’oneoftheGreeksandRomans.

Religioncame to beseen assomething which eachindividualshouldchooseforhimself. Thechurch’s

earth-centric belief was overturned by scientists who began to understand the solar system, and new

geographicalknowledgeoverturnedtheEurope-centricviewthattheMediterraneanSeawasthecentreof

theworld(seeTheme8).

ThereisavastamountofmaterialonEuropeanhistoryfromthefourteenthcentury–documents,printed

books,paintings,sculptures,buildings,textiles.Muchofthishasbeencarefullypreservedinarchives,art

galleriesandmuseumsinEuropeandAmerica.

From the nineteenth century, historians used the term ‘Renaissance’ (literally, rebirth) to describe the

culturalchangesofthisperiod.ThehistorianwhoemphasisedthesemostwasaSwissscholar–Jacob

Burckhardt(1818–97)oftheUniversityofBasleinSwitzerland.Hewasastudent

oftheGermanhistorianLeopoldvonRanke(1795–1886).Rankehadtaughthimthattheprimaryconcern

ofthehistorianwastowriteaboutstatesandpoliticsusingpapersandfilesofgovernmentdepartments.

Burckhardt was dissatisfied with these very limited goals that his master had set out for him. To him

politicswasnotthebe-allandend-allinhistorywriting.Historywasasmuchconcernedwithcultureas

withpolitics.

In 1860, he wrote a book called The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy, in which he called his

readers’attentiontoliterature,architectureandpaintingtotellthestoryofhowanew‘humanist’culture

hadfloweredinItaliantownsfromthefourteenthtotheseventeenthcentury.Thisculture,hewrote,was

characterisedbyanewbelief–thatman,asanindividual,wascapableofmakinghisowndecisionsand

developinghisskills.Hewas‘modern’,incontrastto‘medieval’manwhosethinkinghadbeencontrolled

bythechurch.

TheRevivalofItalianCities

AfterthefallofthewesternRomanEmpire,manyofthetownsthathadbeenpoliticalandculturalcentres

inItalyfellintoruin.Therewasnounifiedgovernment,andthePopeinRome,whowassovereigninhis

ownstate,wasnotastrongpoliticalfigure.

While western Europe was being reshaped by feudal bonds and unified under the Latin Church, and

easternEuropeundertheByzantineEmpire,andIslamwascreatingacommoncivilisationfurtherwest,

Italywasweakandfragmented.However,itwastheseverydevelopmentsthathelpedintherevivalof

Italianculture.

With the expansion of trade between the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic countries, the ports on the

Italiancoastrevived.Fromthetwelfthcentury,astheMongolsopeneduptradewithChinaviatheSilk

Route(seeTheme5)andastradewithwesternEuropeancountriesalsoincreased,Italiantownsplayeda

centralrole.

Map1:TheItalianStates

Theynolongersawthemselvesaspartofapowerfulempire,butasindependentcity-states.Twoofthese

–FlorenceandVenice–wererepublics,andmanyotherswerecourt-cities,ruledbyprinces.

OneofthemostvibrantcitieswasVenice,anotherwasGenoa.Theyweredifferentfromotherpartsof

Europe – the clergy were not politically dominant here, nor were there powerful feudal lords. Rich

merchantsandbankersactivelyparticipatedingoverningthecity,andthishelpedtheideaofcitizenship

tostrikeroot.Evenwhenthesetownswereruledbymilitarydespots,thepridefeltbythetownspeoplein

beingcitizensdidnotweaken.

TheCity-State

CardinalGasparoContarini(1483-1542)writesaboutthedemocraticgovernmentofhiscity-stateinTheCommonwealthandGovernment

ofVenice(1534).

‘…to come to the institution of our Venetian commonwealth, the whole authority of the city…is in that council, into which all the

gentlemenoftheCitybeingoncepasttheageof25yearsareadmitted...

G.Bellini’s‘TheRecoveryoftheRelicoftheHolyCross’waspaintedin1500,torecallaneventof1370,andissetinfifteenth-

centuryVenice.



NowfirstIamtoyieldyouareckoninghowandwithwhatwisdomitwasordainedbyourancestors,thatthecommonpeopleshouldnot

beadmittedintothiscompanyofcitizens,inwhoseauthority[lies]thewholepowerofthecommonwealth...Becausemanytroublesand

populartumultsariseinthosecities,whosegovernmentisswayedbythecommonpeople…manywereofcontraryopinion,deemingthat

itwoulddowell,ifthismannerofgoverningthecommonwealthshouldratherbedefinedbyabilityandabundanceofriches.Contrariwise

the honest citizens, and those that are liberally brought up, oftentimes fall to poverty... Therefore our wise and prudent ancestors...

orderedthatthis definitionofthepublicruleshouldgoratherby thenobilityof lineage, than bytheestimation of wealth: yetwiththat

temperature[proviso],thatmenofchiefandsupremenobilityshouldnothavethisrulealone(forthatwouldratherhavebeenthepower

of a few than a commonwealth) but also every other citizen whosoever not ignobly born: so that all which were noble by birth, or

ennobledbyvirtue,did...obtainthisrightofgovernment.’

UniversitiesandHumanism

The earliest universities in Europe had been set up in Italian towns. The universities of Padua and

Bolognahadbeencentresoflegalstudiesfromtheeleventhcentury.Commercebeingthechiefactivityin

thecity,therewasanincreasingdemandforlawyersandnotaries(acombinationofsolicitorandrecord-

keeper)towriteandinterpretrulesandwrittenagreementswithoutwhichtradeonalargescalewasnot

possible. Lawwastherefore a popular subject ofstudy, butthere was now a shiftin emphasis.Itwas

studiedinthecontextofearlierRomanculture.FrancescoPetrarch(1304-78)representedthischange.To

Petrarch,antiquitywasadistinctivecivilisationwhichcouldbebestunderstoodthroughtheactualwords

of the ancientGreeks and Romans. He therefore stressed the importance of a close reading of ancient

authors.

ACTIVITY1

LocateVeniceonthemapofItaly,andlookcarefullyatthepaintingonp.154.How

wouldyoudescribethecity,andinwhatwayswasitdifferentfromacathedral-town?

This educational programme implied that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone

couldnotgive.Thiswastheculturewhichhistoriansinthenineteenthcenturyweretolabel‘humanism’.

By the early fifteenth century, the term ‘humanist’ was used for masters who taught grammar, rhetoric,

poetry,historyandmoralphilosophy.TheLatinwordhumanitas,fromwhich‘humanities’wasderived,

had been used many centuries ago by the Roman lawyer and essayist Cicero (106-43 bce), a

contemporaryofJuliusCaesar,tomeanculture.Thesesubjectswerenotdrawnfromorconnectedwith

religion,andemphasisedskillsdevelopedbyindividualsthroughdiscussionanddebate.

GiovanniPicodellaMirandola(1463-94),ahumanistofFlorence,wroteontheimportanceofdebateinOntheDignityofMan(1486).

‘For [Plato and Aristotle] itwas certain that, for the attainment of the knowledge of truth they were always seeking forthemselves,

nothing is better than to attend as often as possible the exercise of debate. For just as bodily energy is strengthened by gymnastic

exercise,sobeyonddoubtinthiswrestling-placeofletters,asitwere,energyofmindbecomesfarstrongerandmorevigorous.’

These revolutionary ideas attracted attention in many other universities, particularly in the newly

establisheduniversityinPetrarch’sownhome-townofFlorence.Tilltheendofthethirteenthcentury,this

city had not made a mark as a centre of trade or of learning, but things changed dramatically in the

fifteenthcentury.

Florence,asketchmadein1470.

A city is known by its great citizens as much as by its wealth, and Florence had come to be known

because of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), a layman who wrote on religious themes, and Giotto (1267-

1337),anartistwhopaintedlifelikeportraits,verydifferentfromthestifffiguresdonebyearlierartists.

FromthenitdevelopedasthemostexcitingintellectualcityinItalyandasacentreofartisticcreativity.

Theterm‘RenaissanceMan’isoftenusedtodescribeapersonwithmanyinterestsandskills,because

many of the individuals who became well known at this time were people of many parts. They were

scholar-diplomat-theologian-artistcombinedinone.

Giotto’spaintingofthechildJesus,Assisi,Italy.

TheHumanistViewofHistory

Humaniststhoughtthattheywererestoring‘truecivilisation’aftercenturiesofdarkness,fortheybelieved

that a ‘dark age’ had set in after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Following them, later scholars

unquestioningly assumed that a ‘new age’ had begun in Europe from the fourteenth century. The term

‘MiddleAges’/‘medievalperiod’wasusedforthemillennium(thousandyears)afterthefallofRome.In

the‘MiddleAges’,theyargued,theChurchhadhadsuchcompletecontrolovermen’smindsthatallthe

learningoftheGreeksandRomanshadbeenblottedout.Thehumanistsusedtheword‘modern’forthe

periodfromthefifteenthcentury.

Periodisationusedbyhumanistsandbylaterscholars

5th–14thcenturyTheMiddleAges

5th–9thcenturyTheDarkAges

9th–11thcenturyTheEarlyMiddleAges

11th–14thcenturyTheLateMiddleAges

15thcenturyonwardsTheModernAge

Recently,historianshavequestionedthisdivision.Withmoreresearchbeingdoneandmorebeingfound

out about Europe in this period, scholars are increasingly reluctant to make sharp divisions between

centuriesintermsofbeingculturallyvibrantorotherwise.Itseemsunfairtolabelanyperiodasthe‘Dark

Ages’.

ScienceandPhilosophy:TheArabs’Contribution

Much ofthewritingsof theGreeksandRomanshadbeenfamiliartomonks andclergymenthrough the

‘MiddleAges’,buttheyhadnotmadethesewidelyknown.Inthefourteenthcentury,manyscholarsbegan

toreadtranslatedworksofGreekwriterslikePlatoandAristotle.Forthistheywereindebtednottotheir

own scholars but to Arab translators who had carefully preserved and translated ancient manuscripts

(PlatowasAflatun,andAristotleAristuinArabic).

WhilesomeEuropeanscholarsreadGreekinArabictranslation,theGreekstranslatedworksofArabic

andPersianscholarsforfurthertransmissiontootherEuropeans.Thesewereworksonnaturalscience,

mathematics,astronomy,medicineandchemistry.Ptolemy’sAlmagest (aworkon astronomy, writtenin

Greekbefore140ceandlatertranslatedintoArabic)carriestheArabicdefinitearticle‘al’,whichbrings

outtheArabicconnection.AmongtheMuslimwriterswhowereregardedasmenofwisdomintheItalian

worldwereIbnSina*(‘Avicenna’inLatin,980-1037),anArabphysicianandphilosopherofBukharain

CentralAsia,andal-Razi(‘Rhazes’),authorofamedicalencyclopaedia.IbnRushd(‘Averroes’inLatin,

1126-98),anArabphilosopherofSpain,triedtoresolvethetensionbetweenphilosophicalknowledge

(faylasuf)andreligiousbeliefs.HismethodwasadoptedbyChristianthinkers.

*TheEuropeanspellingoftheseindividuals’namesmadelatergenerationsthinktheywereEuropeans!

Schoolsatthistimewereonlyforboys.

Humanistsreachedouttopeopleinavarietyofways.Thoughthecurriculainuniversitiescontinuedtobe

dominatedbylaw,medicineandtheology,humanistsubjectsslowlybegantobeintroducedinschools,not

justinItalybutinotherEuropeancountriesaswell.

“Art”isembeddedinnature;hewhocanextractit,hasit…Moreover,youmaydemonstratemuchofyour

work by geometry. The more closely your work abides by life in its form, so much the better will it

appear…Nomanshalleverbeabletomakeabeautifulfigureoutofhisownimaginationunlesshehas

wellstoredhismindbymuchcopyingfromlife.

Formal education was not the only way through which humanists shaped the minds of their age. Art,

architectureandbookswerewonderfullyeffectiveintransmittinghumanistideas.–AlbrechtDurer(1471-

1528)

ThissketchbyDurer(PrayingHands)givesusa sense of Italian cultureinthe sixteenthcentury,when

people were deeply religious, but also had a sense of confidence in man’s ability to achieve near-

perfectionandtounravelthemysteriesoftheworldandtheuniverse.

Artistswereinspiredbystudyingworksofthepast.ThematerialremainsofRomancultureweresought

withasmuchexcitementasancienttexts:athousandyearsafterthefallofRome,fragmentsofartwere

discoveredintheruinsofancientRomeandotherdesertedcities.Theiradmirationforthefiguresof

‘perfectly’proportionedmenandwomensculptedsomanycenturiesago,madeItaliansculptorswantto

continuethattradition.In1416,Donatello(1386-1466)brokenewgroundwithhislifelikestatues.

‘ThePieta’byMichelangelodepictsMaryholdingthebodyofJesus.



Artists’concerntobeaccuratewashelpedbytheworkofscientists.Tostudybonestructures,artistswent

to the laboratories of medical schools. Andreas Vesalius (1514-64), a Belgian and a professor of

medicineattheUniversityofPadua,wasthefirsttodissectthehumanbody.Thiswasthebeginningof

modernphysiology.

Thisself-portraitisbyLeonardodaVinci(1452-1519)whohadanamazingrangeofinterestsfrombotanyandanatomytomathematics

andart.HepaintedtheMonaLisaandTheLastSupper.

Oneofhisdreamswastobeabletofly.Hespentyearsobservingbirdsinflight,anddesignedaflyingmachine.

Hesignedhisname‘LeonardodaVinci,discipleofexperiment’.

ACTIVITY2

Describe the different scientific elements in the work of sixteenth-century Italian

artists.



Paintersdidnothaveolderworkstouseasamodel.Butthey,likesculptors,paintedasrealisticallyas

possible.Theyfoundthataknowledgeofgeometryhelpedthemunderstandperspective,andthatbynoting

the changing quality of light, their pictures acquired a three-dimensional quality. The use of oil as a

medium forpaintingalsogave a greater richnessofcolourto paintingsthanbefore.In thecoloursand

designsofcostumesinmanypaintings,thereisevidenceoftheinfluenceofChineseandPersianart,made

availabletothembytheMongols.(seeTheme5)

Thus,anatomy,geometry,physics,aswellasastrongsenseofwhatwasbeautiful,gaveanewqualityto

Italianart,whichwastobecalled‘realism’andwhichcontinuedtillthenineteenthcentury.

Architecture

ThecityofRomerevivedinaspectacularwayinthefifteenth

century.From1417,thepopeswerepoliticallystrongerbecausetheweaknesscausedbytheelectionof

tworivalpopessince1378hadended.TheyactivelyencouragedthestudyofRome’shistory.Theruinsin

Romewerecarefullyexcavatedbyarchaeologists(archaeologywasanewskill).Thisinspireda‘new’

styleinarchitecture,whichwasactuallyarevivaloftheimperialRomanstyle–nowcalled‘classical’.

Popes, wealthy merchants and aristocrats employed architects who were familiar with classical

architecture.Artistsandsculptorswerealsotodecoratebuildingswithpaintings,sculpturesandreliefs.

ItalianarchitectureinthesixteenthcenturycopiedmanyfeaturesofimperialRomanbuildings.

Someindividualswereskilledequallyaspainters,sculptorsandarchitects.Themostimpressiveexample

is Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) – immortalised by the ceiling he painted for the Pope in the

SistineChapel,thesculpturecalled‘ThePieta’andhisdesignofthedomeofStPeter’sChurch,allin

Rome.FilippoBrunelleschi(1337-1446),thearchitectwhodesignedthespectacularDuomoofFlorence,

hadstartedhiscareerasasculptor.

Another remarkable change was that from this time, artists were known individually, by name, not as

membersofagrouporaguild,asearlier.

TheFirstPrintedBooks

Ifpeopleinothercountrieswantedtoseepaintings,sculpturesorbuildingsofgreatartists,theyhadto

traveltoItaly.Butinthecaseofthewrittenword,whatwaswritteninItalytravelledtoothercountries.

This was because ofthe greatest revolution of the sixteenth century – themastery of the technology of

printing.Forthis,Europeanswereindebtedtootherpeoples–theChinese,forprintingtechnology,andto

MongolrulersbecauseEuropeantradersanddiplomatshadbecomefamiliarwithitduringvisitstotheir

courts. (Thiswasalsothecase withthreeother important innovations–firearms,the compass and the

abacus.)

TheDuomo,thedomeofFlorencecathedraldesignedbyBrunelleschi.

LeonBatistaAlberti(1404-72)wroteonarttheoryandarchitecture.‘HimIcallanArchitectwhois

abletodeviseandtocompleatallthoseWorkswhich,bythemovementofgreatWeights,andbythe

conjunctionandamassmentofBodiescan,withthegreatestBeauty,

beadaptedtotheuses

ofMankind.’

Earlier,textsexistedinafewhand-writtencopies.In1455,150copiesoftheBiblewereprintedinthe

workshopofJohannnesGutenberg(1400-1458),theGermanwhomadethefirstprintingpress.Earlier,a

monkwouldhavetakenthesameamountoftimetowriteoutonecopyoftheBible!

By 1500, many classical texts, nearly allin Latin, had been printed in Italy. As printed booksbecame

available,itwaspossibletobuythem,andstudentsdidnothavetodependsolelyonlecture-notes.Ideas,

opinions and information moved more widely and more rapidly than ever before. A printed book

promotingnewideascouldquicklyreachhundredsofreaders.Thisalsomadeitpossibleforindividuals

toreadbooks,sinceitwaspossibletobuycopiesforoneself.Thisdevelopedthereadinghabitamong

people.

ThechiefreasonthatthehumanistcultureofItalyspreadmorerapidlyacrosstheAlpsfromtheendofthe

fifteenth century is that printed books were circulating. This also explains why earlier intellectual

movementshadbeenlimitedtoparticularregions.

ANewConceptofHumanBeings

Oneofthefeaturesofhumanistculturewasaslackeningofthecontrolofreligionoverhumanlife.Italians

were strongly attracted to material wealth, power and glory, but they were not necessarily irreligious.

FrancescoBarbaro(1390-1454),ahumanistfromVenice,wrotea

pamphletdefendingacquisitionofwealthasavirtue.InOnPleasure,LorenzoValla(1406-1457),who

believed that the study of history leads man to strive for a life of perfection, criticised the Christian

injunctionagainstpleasure.Therewasalsoaconcernatthistimewithgoodmanners–howoneshould

speakpolitelyanddresscorrectly,whatskillsapersonofcultureshouldlearn.

Humanismalsoimpliedthatindividualswerecapableofshapingtheirownlivesthroughmeansotherthan

themerepursuitofpowerandmoney.Thisidealwascloselytiedwiththebeliefthathumannaturewas

many-sided,whichwentagainstthethreeseparateordersthatfeudalsocietybelievedin.

NiccoloMachiavelliwroteabouthumannatureinthefifteenthchapterofhisbook,ThePrince(1513).‘So,leavingasideimaginarythings,

andreferringonlytothosewhichtrulyexist,Isaythatwhenevermenarediscussed(andespeciallyprinces,whoaremoreexposedto

view),theyarenotedforvariousqualitieswhichearnthemeitherpraiseorcondemnation.Some,forexample,areheldtobegenerous,

and others miserly. Some are held to be benefactors, others are called grasping; some cruel, some compassionate; one man faithless,

another faithful; one man effeminate and cowardly, another fierce and courageous; one man courteous, another proud; one man

lascivious,anotherpure;oneguileless,anothercrafty;onestubborn,anotherflexible;onegrave,anotherfrivolous;onereligious,another

sceptical;andsoforth.’

Machiavellibelievedthat‘allmenarebadandeverreadytodisplaytheirviciousnaturepartlybecauseofthefactthathumandesiresare

insatiable’.ThemostpowerfulmotiveMachiavellisawastheincentiveforeveryhumanactionisself-interest.

TheAspirationsofWomen

The new ideal of individuality and citizenship excluded women. Men from aristocratic families

dominated public life and were the decision-makers in their families. They educated their

sonsto take their place in family businesses or in public life, at times sending their younger

sonstojointheChurch.Althoughtheirdowrieswereinvestedinthefamilybusinesses,women

generally hadno say in how theirhusbands should run their business.Often, marriageswere

intended to strengthen business alliances. If an adequate dowry could not be arranged,

daughtersweresenttoconventstolivethelifeofanun.Obviously,thepublicrole

ofwomenwaslimitedandtheywerelookeduponaskeepersofthehouseholds.

Thepositionofwomeninthefamiliesofmerchants,however,wassomewhatdifferent.Shopkeeperswere

veryoftenassistedbytheirwivesinrunningtheshop.Infamiliesofmerchantsandbankers,wiveslooked

after the businesses when the male members were away on work. The early death of a merchant

compelledhiswidowtoperformalargerpublicrolethanwasthecaseinaristocraticfamilies.

Isabellad’Este.

ACTIVITY3

Compare the aspirations for women expressed by a woman (Fedele) and by a man

(Castiglione).Didtheyhaveonlywomenofaparticularclassinmind?

A few women were intellectually very creative and sensitive about the importance of a humanist

education.‘Eventhoughthestudy ofletterspromisesandoffersno rewardfor womenandnodignity’,

wrote the Venetian Cassandra Fedele (1465-1558), ‘every woman ought to seek and embrace these

studies.’ She was one of a handful of women who questioned the idea that women were incapable of

achievingthequalitiesofahumanistscholar.FedelewasknownforherproficiencyinGreekandLatin,

andwasinvitedtogiveorationsattheUniversityofPadua.

Fedele’s writings bring into focus the general regard for education in that age. She was one of many

Venetianwomenwriterswhocriticisedtherepublic‘forcreatingahighlylimiteddefinitionoffreedom

thatfavouredthedesiresofmenoverthoseofwomen’.AnotherremarkablewomanwastheMarchesaof

Mantua,Isabellad’Este(1474-1539).Sheruledthestatewhileherhusbandwasabsent,andthecourtof

Mantua, a small state, was famed for its intellectual brilliance. Women’s writings revealed their

conviction that they should have economic power, property and education to achieve an identity in a

worlddominatedbymen.

BalthasarCastiglione,authoranddiplomat,wroteinhisbookTheCourtier(1528):

‘Iholdthatawomanshouldinnowayresembleamanasregardsherways,manners,words,gesturesandbearing.Thusjustasitisvery

fitting that a man should display a certain robust and sturdy manliness, so it is well for a woman to have a certain soft and delicate

tenderness,withanairoffemininesweetnessinhereverymovement,which,inhergoingandstayingandwhatsoevershedoes,always

makesherappearawoman,withoutanyresemblancetoaman.Ifthispreceptbeaddedtotherulesthatthesegentlemenhavetaughtthe

courtier,thenIthinkthatsheoughttobeabletomakeuseofmanyofthem,andadornherselfwiththefinestaccomplishments...ForI

considerthatmanyvirtuesofthemindareasnecessarytoawomanastoaman;asitistobeofgoodfamily;toshunaffectation:tobe

naturallygraceful;tobewellmannered,cleverandprudent;tobeneitherproud,enviousorevil-tongued,norvain...toperformwelland

gracefullythesportssuitableforwomen.’

DebateswithinChristianity

Tradeandtravel,militaryconquestanddiplomaticcontactslinkedItaliantownsandcourtswiththeworld

beyond.Thenewculturewasadmiredandimitatedbytheeducatedandthewealthy.Veryfewofthenew

ideasfiltereddowntotheordinarymanwho,afterall,couldnotreadorwrite.

Inthefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturies,manyscholarsinuniversitiesinnorthEuropewereattracted

to humanist ideas. Like their Italian colleagues, they too focused on classical Greek and Roman texts

alongwiththeholybooksoftheChristians.But,unlikeItaly,whereprofessionalscholarsdominatedthe

humanist movement, in north Europe humanism attracted many members of the Church. They called on

Christians to practise religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of their religion, discarding

unnecessaryrituals,whichtheycondemnedaslateradditionstoasimplereligion.Theirswasaradically

newviewofhumanbeingsasfreeandrationalagents.Laterphilosophersweretoreturntothisoverand

overagain,inspiredbythebeliefinadistantGodwhocreatedmanbutallowedhimcompletefreedomto

livehislifefreely,inpursuitofhappiness‘hereandnow’.

ChristianhumanistslikeThomasMore(1478-1535)inEnglandandErasmus(1466-1536)inHollandfelt

thattheChurchhadbecomeaninstitutionmarkedbygreed,extortingmoneyatwillfromordinarypeople.

Oneofthefavouritemethodsoftheclergywastosell‘indulgences’,documentswhichapparentlyfreed

the buyer from the burden of the sins he had committed. Christians came to realise from printed

translationsoftheBibleinlocallanguagesthattheirreligiondidnotpermitsuchpractices.

InalmosteverypartofEurope,peasantsbegantorebelagainstthetaxesimposedbytheChurch.While

thecommonfolkresentedtheextortionsofchurchmen,princesfoundtheirinterferenceintheworkofthe

stateirritating.Theywerepleasedwhenthehumanistspointedoutthattheclergy’sclaimtojudicialand

fiscal powers originated froma document called the ‘Donation of Constantine’ supposedtohave been

issuedbyConstantine,thefirstChristianRomanEmperor.Humanistscholarswereabletopointoutthat

thiswasnotgenuine,andhadbeenforgedlater.

In 1517, a young German monk called Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a campaign against the

CatholicChurchandarguedthatapersondidnotneedprieststoestablishcontactwithGod.Heaskedhis

followerstohavecompletefaithinGod,forfaithalonecouldguidethemtotherightlifeandentryinto

heaven. This movement – called the Protestant Reformation – led to the churches in Germany and

Switzerland breakingtheirconnection with the Pope and the CatholicChurch. In Switzerland, Luther’s

ideaswerepopularisedbyUlrichZwingli(1484-1531)andlaterbyJeanCalvin(1509-64).Backedby

merchants,thereformershadgreaterpopularappealintowns,whileinruralareastheCatholicChurch

managedtoretainitsinfluence.OtherGermanreformers,liketheAnabaptists,wereevenmoreradical:

theyblendedtheideaofsalvationwiththeendofallformsofsocialoppression.TheysaidthatsinceGod

had createdall people as equal, theywere notexpectedtopay taxes and had the right to choose their

priests.Thisappealedtopeasantsoppressedbyfeudalism.

TheNewTestamentisthesectionoftheBibledealingwiththelifeandteachingsofChristandhis

earlyfollowers.

WilliamTyndale(1494-1536),anEnglishLutheranwhotranslatedtheBibleintoEnglishin1506,defendedProtestantismthus:

‘Inthistheybeallagreed,to driveyoufromtheknowledge ofthescripture,and thatyeshallnothavethetextthereofinthemother-

tongue,andtokeeptheworldstillindarkness,totheintenttheymightsitintheconsciencesofthepeople,throughvainsuperstitionand

falsedoctrine,tosatisfytheirproudambition,andinsatiablecovetousness,andtoexalttheirownhonourabovekingandemperor,yea,and

aboveGodhimself...WhichthingonlymovedmetotranslatetheNewTestament.BecauseIhadperceivedbyexperience,howthatit

wasimpossibletoestablishthelay-peopleinanytruth,exceptthescripturewereplainlylaidbeforetheireyesintheirmother-tongue,that

theymightseetheprocess,order,andmeaningofthetext.‘

Luther did not support radicalism. He called upon German rulers to suppress the peasants’ rebellion,

whichtheydidin1525.Butradicalismsurvived,andmergedwiththeresistanceofProtestantsinFrance,

who,persecuted bythe Catholicrulers, startedclaimingthe rightofapeopletoremovean oppressive

rulerandtochoosesomeoneoftheirownliking.Eventually,inFrance,asinmanyotherpartsofEurope,

the Catholic Church allowed Protestants to worship as they chose. In England, the rulers ended the

connectionwiththePope.Theking/queenwasfromthenonwardstheheadoftheChurch.

The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas, and began to reform itself from

within.InSpainandinItaly,churchmenemphasisedtheneedforasimplelifeandservicetothepoor.In

Spain,IgnatiusLoyola, inan attempt to combatProtestantism, setup theSocietyofJesus in1540. His

followers were called Jesuits, whose mission was to serve thepoor and to widen their knowledge of

othercultures.

ACTIVITY4

WhatweretheissuesonwhichtheProtestantscriticisedtheCatholicChurch?

TheCopernicanRevolution

TheChristiannotionofmanasasinnerwasquestionedfromanentirelydifferentangle–byscientists.

TheturningpointinEuropeansciencecamewiththeworkofCopernicus(1473-1543),acontemporaryof

MartinLuther.Christianshadbelievedthattheearthwasasinfulplaceandtheheavyburdenofsinmade

itimmobile.Theearthstoodatthecentreoftheuniversearoundwhichmovedthecelestialplanets.

Celestialmeansdivineorheavenly,whileterrestrialimplieshavingaworldlyquality.

Self-portraitbyCopernicus.

Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth, rotate around the sun. A devout Christian,

Copernicuswasafraidofthepossiblereactiontohistheorybytraditionalistclergymen.Forthisreason,

hedidnotwanthismanuscript,Derevolutionibus(TheRotation)tobeprinted.Onhisdeathbed,hegave

ittohisfollower,JoachimRheticus.Ittooktimeforpeopletoacceptthisidea.Itwasmuchlater–more

thanhalfacenturylater,infact–thatthedifferencebetween‘heaven’andearthwasbridgedthroughthe

writingsofastronomerslikeJohannesKepler(1571-1630)andGalileoGalilei(1564-1642).Thetheory

of the earth as part of a sun-centred system was made popular by Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery,

whichdemonstratedthattheplanetsmovearoundthesunnotincirclesbutinellipses.Galileoconfirmed

thenotionofthedynamicworldinhisworkTheMotion.Thisrevolutioninsciencereacheditsclimax

withIsaacNewton’stheoryofgravitation.

ReadingtheUniverse

GalileoonceremarkedthattheBiblethatlightstheroadtoheavendoesnotsaymuchonhowtheheavens

work. The work of these thinkers showed that knowledge, as distinct from belief, was based on

observation and experiments. Once thesescientists had shown the way, experiments and investigations

intowhatcametobecalledphysics,chemistryandbiologyexpandedrapidly.Historiansweretolabel

thisnewapproachtotheknowledgeofmanandnaturetheScientificRevolution.

Consequently, in the minds of sceptics and non-believers, God began to be replaced by Nature as the

source ofcreation.Even thosewhoretained theirfaithin God startedtalkingabout a distant God who

does notdirectly regulatetheactof living inthe materialworld. Such ideas werepopularisedthrough

scientific societies that established a new scientific culture in the public domain. The Paris Academy,

establishedin1670andtheRoyalSocietyinLondonforthepromotionofnaturalknowledge,formedin

1662,heldlecturesandconductedexperimentsforpublicviewing.

WasthereaEuropean‘Renaissance’intheFourteenthCentury?

Letusnowreconsidertheconceptofthe‘Renaissance’.Canweseethisperiodasmarkingasharpbreak

withthepastandtherebirthofideasfromGreekandRomantraditions?Wastheearlierperiod(twelfth

andthirteenthcenturies)atimeofdarkness?

Recentwriters,likePeterBurkeofEngland,havesuggestedthatBurckhardtwasexaggeratingthesharp

difference between this period and the one that preceded it, by using the term ‘Renaissance’, which

impliesthattheGreekandRomancivilisationswererebornatthistime,andthatscholarsandartistsof

this period substituted the pre-Christian world-view for the Christian one. Both arguments were

exaggerated.ScholarsinearliercenturieshadbeenfamiliarwithGreekandRomancultures,andreligion

continuedtobeaveryimportantpartofpeople’slives.

TocontrasttheRenaissanceas aperiod ofdynamismandartistic creativity, and theMiddleAgesasa

periodofgloomandlackofdevelopmentisanover-simplification.Manyelementsassociatedwiththe

RenaissanceinItalycanbetracedbacktothetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies.Ithasbeensuggestedby

somehistoriansthatintheninthcenturyinFrance,therehadbeensimilarliteraryandartisticblossoming.

TheculturalchangesinEuropeatthistimewerenotshapedonlybythe‘classical’civilisationofRome

andGreece.ThearchaeologicalandliteraryrecoveryofRomanculturedidcreateagreatadmirationof

thatcivilisation.ButtechnologiesandskillsinAsiahadmovedfar

aheadofwhattheGreeksandRomanshadknown.Muchmoreoftheworldhadbecomeconnected,and

the new techniques of navigation (see Theme 8) enabled people to sail much further than had been

possibleearlier.TheexpansionofIslamandtheMongolconquestshadlinkedAsiaandNorthAfricawith

Europe,notpoliticallybutintermsoftradeandoflearningskills.TheEuropeanslearnednotjustfromthe

GreeksandRomans,butfromIndia,fromArabia,fromIran,fromCentralAsiaandChina.Thesedebts

were not acknowledged for a long time because when the history of this period started to be written,

historianssawitfromaEurope-centredviewpoint.

An important change that did happen in this period was that gradually the ‘private’ and the ‘public’

spheresoflifebegantobecomeseparate:the‘public’spheremeanttheareaofgovernmentandofformal

religion;the‘private’sphereincludedthefamilyandpersonalreligion.Theindividualhadaprivateas

wellasapublicrole.Hewasnotsimplyamemberofoneofthe‘threeorders’;hewasalsoapersonin

his ownright. Anartistwas notjust a member ofaguild,hewas knownforhimself. In theeighteenth

century, this sense of the individual would be expressed in a political form, in the belief that all

individualshadequalpoliticalrights.

Another development was that the different regions of Europe started to have their separate sense of

identity, basedon language. Europe,earlier united partly by theRoman Empireand laterby Latin and

Christianity,wasnowdissolvingintostates,eachunitedbyacommonlanguage.

Exercises

Answerinbrief

1.WhichelementsofGreekandRomanculturewererevivedinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies?

2.ComparedetailsofItalianarchitectureofthisperiodwithIslamicarchitecture.

3.WhywereItaliantownsthefirsttoexperiencetheideasofhumanism?

4.ComparetheVenetianideaofgoodgovernmentwiththoseincontemporaryFrance.



Answerinashortessay

5.Whatwerethefeaturesofhumanistthought?

6.Writeacarefulaccountofhowtheworldappeareddifferenttoseventeenth-centuryEuropeans.



Theme8

CONFRONTATIONOFCULTURES

Thischapter willexaminesomeaspects oftheencounters betweenEuropeans and thepeople ofthe

Americas between the fifteenth and the seventeenth centuries. Some Europeans ventured out on

unknownoceansinordertofindtradingroutestoareaswherespicesandsilverweretobeobtained.

ThefirsttodothisweretheSpanishandthePortuguese.TheypersuadedthePopetogivethemthe

exclusive right to rule over any new regions they might locate. Christopher Columbus, an Italian,

sponsoredbytherulersofSpain,sailedwestin1492,andthoughtthatthelandshehadreachedwere

‘theIndies’(IndiaandcountrieseastofIndiaaboutwhichhehadreadintheTravelsofMarcoPolo).

Laterexplorationindicatedthatthe‘Indians’ofthe‘NewWorld’actuallybelongedtodifferentcultural

groupsandwerenotpartofAsia.TwotypesofcultureweretobefoundintheAmericas.Therewere

small subsistence economies in the Caribbean region and in Brazil. There were also powerful

monarchicalsystemsbasedonwell-developedagricultureandmining.These,liketheAztecsandMayas

ofcentralAmericaandtheIncasofPeru,alsohadmonumentalarchitecture.

TheexplorationandlaterthesettlementofSouthAmericaweretohavedisastrousconsequencesforthe

nativepeopleandtheircultures.Italsomarkedthebeginningoftheslavetrade,withEuropeansselling

slavesfromAfricatoworkinplantationsandminesintheAmericas.



European conquest of the people of America was accompanied by the ruthless destruction of their

manuscriptsandmonuments.Itwasonlyinthelatenineteenthcenturythatanthropologistsbegantostudy

these cultures. Still later, archaeologists found the ruins of these civilisations. The Inca city of Machu

Picchuwasrediscoveredin1911.Recently,photographstakenfromtheairhaveshowntracesofmany

citiesnowcoveredbyforest.

Bycontrast,weknowtheEuropeansideoftheencountersingreatdetail.TheEuropeanswhowenttothe

Americas kept log-books and diaries of their journeys. There are records left by officials and Jesuit

missionaries(seeTheme7).Europeanswroteabouttheir‘discovery’oftheAmericas,andwhenhistories

of the countries of America were written, these were in terms of European settlements, with little

referencetothelocalpeople.

PeoplehavebeenlivinginNorthandSouthAmericaandnearbyislandsforthousandsofyears,andmany

migrationsfromAsiaandfromtheSouthSeaIslandshavetakenplaceovertime.SouthAmericawas(and

still is, in parts) densely forested and mountainous, and the Amazon, the world’s largest river, flows

through miles of dense forest. In Mexico, in central America, there were densely settled areas of

habitationalongthecoastandintheplains,whileelsewherevillageswerescatteredoverforestedareas.

CommunitiesoftheCaribbeanandBrazil

The Arawakian Lucayos lived on a cluster of hundreds of small islands in the Caribbean Sea, today

knownastheBahamas,andtheGreaterAntilles.TheyhadbeenexpelledfromtheLesserAntillesbythe

Caribs, a fierce tribe. In contrast to them, the Arawaks were a people who preferred negotiation to

conflict.Skilledboat-builders,theysailedtheopenseaindugoutcanoes(canoesmadefromhollowtree

trunks).Theylivedbyhunting,fishingandagriculture,growingcorn,sweetpotatoes,tubersandcassava.

Acentralculturalvaluewastheorganisationofpeopletoproducefoodcollectivelyandtofeedeveryone

inthe community. They wereorganised under clanelders.Polygamywascommon.The Arawakswere

animists. As in many other societies, shamans played an important role as healers and intermediaries

betweenthisworldandthatofthesupernatural.

Animistsbelievethatevenobjectsregardedbymodernscienceas‘inanimate’mayhavelifeorasoul.



Map1:CentralAmericaandtheCaribbeanIslands

TheArawaksusedgoldforornaments,butdidnotattachthevaluetothemetalthattheEuropeansdid.

TheywerequitehappytoexchangegoldforglassbeadsbroughtbytheEuropeans,becausetheseseemed

so much more beautiful. The art of weaving was highly developed – the hammock was one of their

specialities,andonewhichcapturedtheimaginationoftheEuropeans.

ACTIVITY1

Discuss the differences between the Arawaks and the Spanish. Which of these

differenceswouldyouconsidermostsignificantandwhy?



TheArawaksweregenerousandwerehappytocollaboratewiththeSpanishintheirsearchforgold.It

waswhenSpanishpolicybecamebrutalthattheywereforcedtoresist,butthiswastohavedisastrous

consequencesforthem.Withintwenty-fiveyearsofcontactwiththeSpanishverylittleremainedofthe

Arawaksortheirwayoflife.

PeoplecalledtheTupinambalivedontheeastcoastofSouthAmerica,andinvillagesintheforests(the

name‘Brazil’isderivedfromthebrazilwoodtree).Theycouldnotclearthedenseforestsforcultivation

astheyhadnoaccesstoiron.Buttheyhadahealthyandplentifulsupplyoffruits,vegetablesandfish,and

sodidnothavetodependonagriculture.TheEuropeanswhometthemenviedtheirhappyfreedom,with

noking,armyorchurchtoregulatetheirlives.

TheStateSystemsofCentralandSouthAmerica

IncontrasttotheCaribbeanandBrazil,thereweresomehighlyorganisedstatesincentralAmerica.There

wasageneroussurplusofcorn,whichprovidedthebasisfortheurbanisedcivilisationsoftheAztecs,

Mayas and Incas. The monumental architectural remains of these cities continue to mesmerise visitors

today.

TheAztecs

Inthetwelfthcentury,theAztecshadmigratedfromthenorthintothecentralvalleyofMexico(named

aftertheirgodMexitli).Theyexpandedtheirempirebydefeatingdifferenttribes,whowereforcedtopay

tribute.

Aball-courtmarker,withinscribeddates,Mayaculture,Chiapas,sixthcentury.

Aztecsocietywashierarchical.Thenobilityincludedthosewhowerenoblesbybirth,priests,andothers

whohadbeenawardedtherank.Thehereditarynobilitywereasmallminoritywhooccupiedthesenior

positionsinthegovernment,thearmyandthepriesthood.Thenobleschosefromamongthemasupreme

leader who ruled until his death. The king was regarded as the representative of the sun on earth.

Warriors,priestsand nobleswerethemostrespectedgroups,but tradersalso enjoyedmany privileges

and often served the government as ambassadors and spies. Talented artisans, physicians and wise

teacherswerealsorespected.

Since landwaslimited, the Aztecsundertookreclamations.Theymade chinampas,artificialislands, in

Lake Mexico, by weaving huge reed-mats and covering them with mud and plants. Between these

exceptionally fertile islands, canals were constructed on which, in 1325, was built the capital city

Tenochtitlan. Its palaces and pyramids rose dramatically out of the lake. Because the Aztecs were

frequentlyengagedinwar,themostimpressivetempleswerededicatedtothegodsofwarandthesun.

Reclamationistheconversionofwastelandintolandsuitableforhabitationorcultivation.

Theempirerestedonaruralbase.Peoplecultivatedcorn,beans,squash,pumpkins,maniocroot,potatoes

and other crops. Land was owned not by individuals but by clans, which also organised public

construction works. Peasants, like European serfs, were attached to lands owned by the nobility and

cultivated them in exchange for part of the harvest. The poor would sometimes sell their children as

slaves,butthiswasusuallyonlyforalimitedperiod,andslavescouldbuybacktheirfreedom.

TheAztecsmadesurethatallchildrenwenttoschool.Childrenofthenobilityattendedthecalmecacand

were trained to become military and religious leaders. All others went to the tepochcalli in their

neighbourhood,wheretheylearnedhistory,myths,religionandceremonialsongs.Boysreceivedmilitary

trainingaswellastraininginagricultureandthetrades.Girlsweretrainedindomesticskills.

Intheearlysixteenthcentury,theAztecempirewasshowingsignsofstrain.Thiswaslargelytodowith

discontent among recently conquered peoples who were looking for opportunities to break free from

centralcontrol.

TheMayas

TheMayancultureofMexicodevelopedremarkablybetweentheeleventhandfourteenthcenturies,butin

thesixteenthcenturytheyhadlesspoliticalpowerthantheAztecs.Corncultivationwascentraltotheir

culture, and many religious ceremonies were centred on the planting, growing and harvesting of corn.

Efficientagriculturalproductiongeneratedsurplus,whichhelpedtherulingclasses,priestsandchiefsto

invest in architecture and in the development of astronomy and mathematics. The Mayas devised a

pictographicformofwritingthathasonlybeenpartiallydeciphered.

Mayatemple,Tikal,Guatemala,eighthcentury.

TheIncasofPeru

ThelargestoftheindigenouscivilisationsinSouthAmericawasthatoftheQuechuasorIncasinPeru.In

thetwelfthcenturythefirstInca,MancoCapac,establishedhiscapitalatCuzco.Expansionbeganunder

theninthIncaandatitsmaximumextenttheIncaempirestretched3,000milesfromEcuadortoChile.

The empire was highly centralised, with the king representing the highest source of authority. Newly

conqueredtribeswereabsorbedeffectively;everysubjectwasrequiredtospeakQuechua,thelanguage

ofthecourt.Eachtribewasruledindependentlybyacouncilofelders,butthetribeasawholeowedits

allegiancetotheruler.Atthesametime,localrulerswererewardedfortheirmilitaryco-operation.Thus,

liketheAztecempire,theIncaempireresembledaconfederacy,withtheIncasincontrol.Thereareno

precisefiguresofthepopulation,butitwouldseemthatitincludedoveramillionpeople.

Map2:SouthAmerica

Like the Aztecs, the Incas too were magnificent builders. They built roads through mountains from

EcuadortoChile.Theirfortswerebuiltofstoneslabsthatweresoperfectlycutthattheydidnotrequire

mortar.Theyusedlabour-intensivetechnologytocarveandmovestonesfromnearbyrockfalls.Masons

shapedtheblocks,usinganeffectivebutsimplemethodcalledflaking.Manystonesweighedmorethan

100metrictons,buttheydidnothaveanywheeledvehiclestotransportthese.Labourwasorganisedand

verytightlymanaged.

ThebasisoftheIncacivilisationwasagriculture.Tocopewiththeinfertilesoilconditions,theyterraced

hillsidesanddevelopedsystemsofdrainageandirrigation.Ithasbeenrecentlypointedoutthatin1500,

cultivation in the Andean highlands was much greater than what it is today. The Incas grew corn and

potatoes,andrearedllamasforfoodandlabour.

Theirweavingandpotterywereofahighquality.Theydidnotdevelopasystemofwriting.However,

therewasanaccountingsysteminplace–thequipu,orcordsuponwhichknotsweremadetoindicate

specific mathematical units. Some scholars now suggest that the Incas wove a sort of code into these

threads.

MostvisitorstodaywonderattheartsandskillsoftheIncas.However,therearesomeliketheChileanpoetNeruda,whothoughtofthe

hours of hard work that thousandsofpeoplemusthave been forcedto put in. And all thatto achieve such highlevelsofagricultural

output,suchremarkablearchitecture,andsuchexquisitecrafts,inthisdifficultenvironment.

‘Lookatmefromthedepthsoftheearth,

tilleroffields,weaver,reticentshepherd,

…

masonhighonyourtreacherousscaffolding,

icemanofAndeantears,

jewelerwithcrushedfingers,

farmeranxiousamonghisseedlings,

potterwastedamonghisclays–

bringtothecupofthisnewlife

yourancientburiedsorrows.

Showmeyourbloodandyourfurrow;

saytome:hereIwasscourged

becauseagemwasdullorbecausetheearth

failedtogiveupintimeitstitheofcornorstone.’

–PabloNeruda(1904-73),TheHeightsofMachuPicchu,1943.

ThehilltoptownofMachuPicchu.ItescapedthenoticeoftheSpaniardsandwasthereforenotdestroyed.

The organisation of the Inca empire, with its pyramid-like structure, meant that if the Inca chief was

captured,thechainofcommandcouldquicklycomeapart.Thiswaspreciselywhathappenedwhenthe

Spaniardsdecidedtoinvadetheircountry.

The cultures of the Aztecs and Incas had certain features in common, and were very different from

Europeanculture.Society washierarchical,buttherewasno privateownership ofresourcesbyafew

people, asin Europe. Though priests and shamans were accordedan exaltedstatus, and large temples

werebuilt,inwhichgoldwasusedritually,therewasnogreatvalueplacedongoldorsilver.Thiswas

alsoinmarkedcontrasttocontemporaryEuropeansociety.

ACTIVITY2

Examine a detailed physical map of South America. To what extent do you think

geographyinfluencedthedevelopmentsoftheIncaempire?

VoyagesofExplorationbyEuropeans

ThepeopleofSouthAmericaandtheCaribbeangottoknowoftheexistenceofEuropeanpeoplewhen

thelatterbegantosailacrosstheAtlanticSea.Themagneticcompass,whichhelpedidentifythecardinal

pointsaccurately,hadbeenknownsince1380,butonlyinthefifteenthcenturydidpeopleuseitwhenthey

venturedonvoyagesintounknown areas.Bythistimemanyimprovementshad beenmadeinEuropean

sailingships.Largershipswerebuilt,thatcouldcarryahugequantityofcargoaswellasequipmentto

defend themselves if attacked by enemy ships. The circulation of travel literature and books on

cosmographyandgeographycreatedwidespreadinterestrightthroughthefifteenthcentury.

In1477,Ptolemy’sGeography(written1,300yearsearlier)becameavailableinprint(seeTheme7)and

thuscametobewidelyread.AccordingtoPtolemy,anEgyptian,theregionsoftheworldwerearranged

intermsoflatitudesandlongitudes.ReadingthesetextsgaveEuropeanssomeknowledgeoftheworld,

whichtheyunderstoodtohavethreecontinents,namely,Europe,AsiaandAfrica.Ptolemyhadsuggested

thattheworldwasspherical,butheunderestimatedthewidthoftheoceans.Europeanshadnoideaofthe

distancetheywouldhavetotravelintheAtlanticbeforetheyreachedland.Sincetheyimagineditwould

beashortvoyage,thereweremanywhowerereadytoventureforthrecklesslybeyondtheknownseas.

Cosmographywasunderstoodasthescienceofmappingtheuniverse.ItdescribedbothheavenandEarth,

butwasseenasdistinctfromgeographyandastronomy.

PeoplefromtheIberianpeninsula–thePortugueseandtheSpanish–werethepioneersinthefifteenth-

century voyages of exploration. For a long time these were called ‘voyages of discovery’. Later

historians,however,arguedthatthesewerenotthefirstvoyagesthatpeopleofthe“OldWorld”madeto

lands unknown to them. Arabs, Chineseand Indians had navigatedvast stretches of ocean, and sailors

from the Pacific Islands (the Polynesians and Micronesians) had made major ocean crossings. The

VikingsofNorwayhadreachedNorthAmericaintheeleventhcentury.

Why were Spanish and Portuguese rulers in particular so receptive to the idea of funding a maritime

quest? What produced such a passionfor goldandtreasureandfor gloryand titles?One may find the

answersinacombinationofthreemotives:economic,religiousandpolitical.

TheEuropeaneconomywentthroughadeclinefromthemid-fourteenthtothemid-fifteenthcenturies(see

Theme6).PlagueandwarsledtodepopulationinmanypartsofEurope,tradegrewslack,andtherewas

ashortageofgoldandsilver,usedformakingEuropeancoins.Thissituationwasinstarkcontrasttothe

precedingperiod(fromtheeleventhtothemid-fourteenthcenturies)whengrowingtradehadsupported

Italiancity-statesandledtotheaccumulationofcapital.Inthelatefourteenthcentury,long-distancetrade

declined,andthenbecamedifficultaftertheTurksconqueredConstantinoplein1453.Italiansmanagedto

dobusinesswithTurks,butwerenowrequiredtopayhighertaxesontrade.

ThepossibilitythatmanymorepeoplecouldbebroughtintothefoldofChristianitymademanydevout

ChristianEuropeansreadytofaceadventure.

As it happened, the ‘Crusades’ against the Turks (see Theme 4) began as a religious war, but they

increasedEurope’stradewithAsiaandcreatedatastefortheproductsofAsia,especiallyspices.Iftrade

couldbefollowedbypoliticalcontrol,withEuropeancountriesestablishing‘colonies’inregionswitha

warmerclimate,theywouldbenefitfurther.

Whenthinkingofnewregionswheregoldandspicesmightbefound,onepossibilitywasWestAfrica,

whereEuropeanshadnottradeddirectlysofar.Portugal,asmallcountrywhichhadgainedindependence

fromSpainsince1139,andwhichhaddevelopedfishingandsailingskills,tookthelead.PrinceHenryof

Portugal(calledtheNavigator)organisedthecoastingofWestAfricaandattackedCeutain1415.After

that,moreexpeditionswereorganised,andthePortugueseestablishedatradingstationinCapeBojador

inAfrica.Africanswerecapturedandenslaved,andgolddustyieldedthepreciousmetal.

InSpain,economicreasonsencouragedindividualstobecomeknightsoftheocean.Thememoryofthe

CrusadesandthesuccessoftheReconquistafannedprivateambitionsandgaverisetocontractsknownas

capitulaciones. Under these contracts the Spanish ruler claimed rights of sovereignty over newly

conquered territories and gave rewards to leaders of expeditions in the form of titles and the right to

governtheconqueredlands.

Reconquistawas the military reconquest of the Iberian Peninsulaby Christian kingsfrom the Arabsin

1492.

TheAtlanticCrossing

ChristopherColumbus(1451-1506)wasaself-taughtmanwhosoughtadventureandglory.Believingin

prophecies, he was convinced that his destiny lay in discovering a route to the East (the ‘Indies’) by

sailingwestwards.HewasinspiredbyreadingImagoMundi(aworkonastronomyandgeography)by

CardinalPierred’Aillywrittenin1410.HesubmittedhisplanstothePortugueseCrown,onlytohave

themturneddown.HehadbetterluckwiththeSpanishauthoritieswhosanctionedamodestexpedition

thatsetsailfromtheportofPaloson3August1492.

Nothing, however, prepared Columbus and his crew for the long Atlantic crossing that they embarked

upon,orforthedestinationthatawaitedthem.Thefleetwassmall,consistingofasmallnaocalledSanta

Maria, and two caravels (small light ships) named Pinta and Nina. Columbus himself commanded

theSanta Mariaalongwith 40capablesailors.The outwardjourney enjoyed fair trade winds but was

long.For33days,thefleetsailedwithoutsightofanythingbutseaandsky.Bythistime,thecrewbecame

restiveandsomeofthemdemandedthattheyturnback.

NaomeansaheavyshipinSpanish.ItisderivedfromArabic,andthisisexplainedbythefactofArab

occupationoftheregiontill1492.

On12October1492,theysightedland;theyhadreachedwhatColumbus thoughtwasIndia,butwhich

was the island of Guanahani in the Bahamas. (It is said that this name was given by Columbus, who

describedtheIslandsassurroundedbyshallowseas,bajamarinSpanish.)Theywerewelcomedbythe

Arawaks, who were happy to share their food and provisions; in fact, their generosity made a deep

impressionuponColumbus.Ashewroteinhislog-book,‘Theyaresoingenuousandfreewithallthey

have,thatnoonewouldbelieveitwhohasnotseenofit,anythingtheypossess,ifitbeaskedofthem,

theyneversayno,onthecontrary,theyinviteyoutoshareitandshowasmuchloveasiftheirheartswent

withit’.

ColumbusplantedaSpanishflaginGuanahani(whichherenamedSanSalvador),heldaprayerservice

and, without consulting the local people, proclaimed himself viceroy. He enlisted their cooperation in

pressingforwardtothelargerislandsofCubanascan(Cuba,whichhethoughtwasJapan!)andKiskeya

(renamed Hispaniola, today divided between two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Gold

wasnotimmediatelyavailable,buttheexplorershadheardthatitcouldbefoundinHispaniola,inthe

mountainstreamsintheinterior.

EuropeansmeetnativeAmericans–aEuropeanwoodblockprint,sixteenthcentury.



Butbeforetheycouldgetveryfar,theexpeditionwasovertakenbyaccidentsandhadtofacethehostility

ofthefierceCaribtribes.Themenclamouredtogetbackhome.Thereturnvoyageprovedmoredifficult

astheshipswereworm-eatenandthecrewtiredandhomesick.Theentirevoyagetook32weeks.Three

morevoyagesfollowed,inthecourseofwhichColumbuscompletedhisexplorationsintheBahamasand

theGreaterAntilles,theSouthAmericanmainlandanditscoast.Subsequentvoyagesrevealedthatitwas

notthe‘Indies’thattheSpaniardshadfound,butanewcontinent.

‘Viceroy’meansinplaceoftheking(inthiscasetheKingofSpain).

Columbus’s achievement had been to discover theboundaries of what seemed like infinite seas and to

demonstrate that five weeks’ sailingwith the trade wind took one to the other sideof the globe.Since

placesareoftengiventhenamesofindividuals,itiscuriousthatColumbusiscommemoratedonlyina

smalldistrictintheUSAandinacountryinnorth-westernSouthAmerica(Columbia),thoughhedidnot

reacheitheroftheseareas.ThetwocontinentswerenamedafterAmerigoVespucci,ageographerfrom

Florence who realised how large they might be, and described them as the ‘New World’. The name

‘America’wasfirstusedbyaGermanpublisherin1507.

ACTIVITY3

WhataccordingtoyouwerethereasonsforpeoplefromdifferentEuropeancountries

wantingtotaketheriskofgoingona‘voyageofdiscovery’?

SpainEstablishesanEmpireinAmerica

Spanishexpansionwasbasedonadisplayofmilitarystrengthwiththeuseofgunpowderandofhorses.

Thelocalpeoplewerecompelledeithertopaytributeortoworkingoldandsilvermines.Theinitial

discoverywas typicallyfollowed by establishingasmallsettlement, peopledbyafew Spaniardswho

supervisedthelabourofthelocalinhabitants.Localchieftainswereenlistedtoexplorenewlandsand,

hopefully,moresourcesofgold.Thegreedforgoldledtoviolentincidentsprovokinglocalresistance.

TheSpanishfriarBartolomedelasCasas,themostseverecriticoftheSpanishconquerors,observedthat

theSpanishoftentestedtheirswordsonthenakedfleshoftheArawaks.

To military repression and forced labour was added the ravages of disease. The diseases of the Old

World,particularlysmallpoxwreakedhavocontheArawakswhoselackofimmunityresultedinlarge-

scaledeaths.Thelocalpeopleimaginedthesediseaseswerecausedby‘invisiblebullets’withwhichthe

Spaniards attacked them. The extinction of the Arawaks and all traces of their way of life is a silent

reminderoftheirtragicencounterwithSpaniards.

The expeditions of Columbus were followed by a sustained and successful exploration of Central and

South America. Within half a century, the Spanish had explored and laid claim to a vast area of the

westernhemisphere,fromapproximatelylatitudes40degreesnorthto40degreessouth,withoutanyone

challengingthem.

Beforethis,theSpanishconqueredlandsoftwogreatempiresoftheregion.Thiswaslargelytheworkof

two individuals: Hernan Cortes (1488-1547) and Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541). Their explorations

werefinancedbymembersofthelandedgentryinSpain,officialsofmunicipalcouncilsandnoblemen.

Those joining the expeditions supplied their own equipment in exchange for a share of the booty they

expectedfromtheconquests.

CortesandtheAztecs

Cortesandhissoldiers(calledconquistadores)conqueredMexicoswiftlyandruthlessly.In1519,Cortes

setsailfromCubatoMexico,wherehemadefriendswiththeTotonacs,agroupwhowantedtosecede

from Aztec rule. The Aztec king, Montezuma, sent an official to meet him. He was terrified at the

aggressivenessoftheSpanish,theirgunpowderandtheirhorses.Montezumahimselfwasconvincedthat

Corteswasthereincarnationofanexiledgodwhohadreturnedtoavengehimself.

DonaMarina

BernardDiaz delCastillo(1495-1584) wrote in his TrueHistoryofthe Conquest of Mexicothatthe people of Tabasco gave Cortesa

woman attendant called Dona Marina. She was fluent in threelocal languages, and was able to play a crucial role as interpreterfor

Cortes. ‘Thiswasthe greatbeginning of ourconquests,andwithoutDonaMarinawe couldnot haveunderstoodthe languageofNew

SpainandMexico.’

Diazthoughtshewasaprincess,buttheMexicanscalledher‘Malinche’,awordmeaning‘betrayal’.Malinchistameanssomeonewho

slavishlycopiesthecostumesandlanguageofanotherpeople.

BernardDiazwrote:

‘And when we saw all those cities and villages built in the water, and other towns on dry land, and that straight and level causeway

leadingtoMexicoCity,

wewereastounded.Thesegreattownsandbuildingsrisingfromthewaterallmadeofstone,seemedlikeanenchantedvisionfromthe

taleofAmadis.Indeed,someofoursoldiersaskedwhetheritwasnotadream.’

TheSpaniardspressedagainsttheTlaxcalans,fiercefighterswhosubmittedonlyafterastiffresistance.

The Spaniards proceeded to massacre them cruelly. Then they marched to Tenochtitlan, which they

reachedon8November1519.

TheinvadingSpaniardsweredumbstruckatthesightofTenochtitlan.ItwasfivetimeslargerthanMadrid

andhad100,000inhabitants,twicethepopulationofSeville,Spain’slargestcity.

Cortes was cordially received by Montezuma. The Aztecs led the Spaniards into the heart of the city,

where the Emperor showered them with gifts. His people were apprehensive, having heard of the

massacreoftheTlaxcalans.AnAztecaccountdescribedthesituation:‘ItwasasthoughTenochtitlanhad

given shelter to a monster. The people of Tenochtitlan felt as if everyone had eaten stupefying

mushrooms...asif theyhadseensomethingastonishing.Terrordominatedeveryone,asif alltheworld

werebeingdisemboweled...peoplefellintoafearfulslumber.’

ThefearsoftheAztecsprovedtobewellfounded.CorteswithoutanyexplanationplacedtheEmperor

underhousearrestandattemptedtoruleinhisname.InanattempttoformalisetheEmperor’ssubmission

to Spain, Cortes installed Christian images in the Aztec temple. Montezuma, on his part, suggested a

compromiseandplacedbothAztecandChristianimagesinthetemple.

Above:AEuropeansketchofTenochtitlan,sixteenthcentury.

Below:ThegrandstairwaythatledtothetemplesinthecentreofTenochtitlan,nowaruininMexicoCity.



Atthispoint,CorteshadtoleavehisdeputyinchargeandhurrybacktoCuba.Thehigh-handednessofthe

Spanishoccupationandtheirincessantdemandsforgoldprovokedageneraluprising.Alvaradoordered

amassacreduringtheAztecspringfestivalofHuizilpochtli.WhenCortesreturnedon25June1520,he

hadonhishandsafull-blowncrisis.Thecausewayswerecut,thebridgestakenawayandthenetclosed.

TheSpaniardsfacedacuteshortagesoffoodanddrinkingwater.Corteswasforcedtoretreat.

Around this time, Montezuma died under mysterious circumstances. The Aztecs continued to fight the

Spaniards.600conquistadoresandmanymoreoftheirTlaxcalanallieswerekilledinwhatisknownas

theNightofTears.CorteswasforcedtoretreattoTlaxcalatoplanhisstrategyagainstthenewlyelected

king, Cuatemoc. By then, the Aztecs were dying from the dreaded smallpox which had come with the

Europeans.Withjust180soldiersand30horses,CortesmovedintoTenochtitlanastheAztecsprepared

for their final stand. The Aztecs thought they could see omens foretelling that their end was near, and

becauseofthistheEmperorchosetogiveuphislife.

The conquest of Mexico had taken two years. Cortes became Captain-General of New Spain in

MexicoandwasshoweredwithhonoursbyCharlesV.FromMexico,theSpaniardsextendedtheircontrol

overGuatemala,NicaraguaandtheHonduras.

PizarroandtheIncas

Pizarro,incontrasttoCortes,wasuneducatedandpoorwhenhejoinedthearmyandfoundhiswaytothe

CaribbeanIslandsin1502.HehadheardstoriesabouttheIncakingdomasalandofsilverandgold(El-

dor-ado).HemaderepeatedattemptstoreachitfromthePacific.Ononeofhisjourneysbackhome,he

wasabletomeettheSpanishkingandshowhimbeautifullydesignedgoldjarsofIncaworkmanship.The

king’sgreedwasaroused,andhepromisedPizarrothegovernorshipoftheIncalandsifheconqueredit.

Pizarro planned to follow Cortes’ method, but was disconcerted to find that the situation in the Inca

empirewasdifferent.

In1532,AtahualpasecuredthethroneoftheIncaempireafteracivilwar.Pizarroarrivedonthescene

andcapturedtheking

after setting a trap for him. The king offered a roomful of gold as ransom for his release – the most

extravagant ransom recorded in history – but Pizarro did not honour his promise. He had the king

executed,andhisfollowerswentonalootingspree.Thiswasfollowedbytheoccupationofthecountry.

Thecrueltyoftheconquerorsprovokedanuprisingin1534thatcontinuedfortwoyears,duringwhich

timethousandsdiedinwarandduetoepidemics.

In another five years, the Spanish had located the vast silver mines in Potosi (in Upper Peru, modern

Bolivia)andtoworkthesetheymadetheIncapeopleintoslaves.

Agoldstatuetteofawoman,Peru.ThiswasfoundinatombwhichtheSpanishmissed,andthereforewasnotmelteddown.



CabralandBrazil

ThePortugueseoccupationofBraziloccurredbyaccident.In1500,agrandprocessionofshipssetout

fromPortugalforIndia,headedbyPedroAlvaresCabral.Toavoidstormyseas,hemadeawideloop

aroundWestAfrica,andfoundtohissurprisethathehadreachedthecoastofpresent-dayBrazil.Asit

happened,thiseasternpartofSouthAmericawaswithinthesectionassignedonthemaptoPortugalby

thePope,sotheyregardeditasindisputablytheirs.

ThePortugueseweremoreeagertoincreasetheirtradewithwesternIndiathanwithBrazil,whichdid

not promise any gold. But there was one natural resource there which they exploited: timber. The

brazilwoodtree,afterwhichtheEuropeansnamedtheregion,producedabeautifulreddye.Thenatives

readilyagreedtocutthetreesandcarrythelogstotheshipsinexchangeforironknivesandsaws,which

they regardedas marvels. (’Forone sickle, knife or comb [they] would bring loads of hens,monkeys,

parrots,honey,wax,cottonthreadandwhateverelsethesepoorpeoplehad’.)

‘Whydoyoupeople,FrenchandPortuguese,comefromsofarawaytoseekwood?Don’tyouhavewood

inyourcountry?’anativeaskedaFrenchpriest. At the end oftheirdiscussion,hesaid‘Icanseethat

youaregreatmadmen.Youcrosstheseaandsuffergreatinconvenienceandworksohardtoaccumulate

richesforyourchildren.Isthelandthatnourishedyounotsufficienttofeedthemtoo?Wehavefathers,

mothersandchildrenwhomwelove.Butwearecertainthatafterourdeaththelandthatnourisheduswill

alsofeedthem.Wethereforerestwithoutfurthercares.’

ACTIVITY4

Analyse the effects of contact with the Europeans on the native people of South

America.DescribetheirreactionstothesettlersandtheJesuits.

This trade in timber led tofierce battles between Portuguese and French traders. The Portuguese won

becausetheydecidedto‘settle’in/colonisethecoast.In1534,thekingofPortugaldividedthecoastof

Brazil into fourteen hereditary ‘captaincies’. To the Portuguese who wanted to live there he gave

landownershiprights,andtherighttomakethelocalpeopleintoslaves.ManyPortuguesesettlerswere

veteransofthewarsinGoa,inIndia,andwerebrutaltothelocalpeople.

Inthe1540s,thePortuguesebegantogrowsugarcaneonlargeplantationsandbuiltmillstoextractsugar,

whichwasthensoldinEurope.Inthisveryhotandhumidclimatetheydependedonthenativestowork

thesugarmills.Whenthenativesrefusedtodothisexhaustinganddrearywork,themill-ownersresorted

tokidnappingthemtoworkasslaves.

Thenativeskeptretreatingintotheforeststoescapethe‘slavers’and,astimewenton,therewerehardly

any native villages on the coast; instead, there were large, well-laid-out European towns. Plantation

owners were then forced toturn to another source for slaves: West Africa. This was a contrast to the

Spanishcolonies.AlargepartofthepopulationintheAztecandIncaempireshadbeenusedtolabouring

inminesandfields,sotheSpanishdidnotneedtoformallyenslavethemortolookelsewhere

forslaves.

In 1549, a formal government under the Portuguese king was established, with the capital in

Bahia/Salvador. From this time, Jesuits started to go out to Brazil. European settlers disliked them

becausetheyarguedforhumaneinteractionwiththenatives,venturedintotheforeststoliveinvillages,

and sought to teach them Christianity as a joyous religion. Above all, the Jesuits strongly criticised

slavery.

‘Thereisnogreatercurseonahomeorfamilythantobeunjustlysupportedbythesweatofothers!’



‘Anymanwhodeprivesothersoftheirfreedom,andbeingabletorestorethatfreedom,doesnotdoso,iscondemned!’

–AntonioVieira,JesuitpriestinBrazil,1640s.



Conquest,ColoniesandtheSlaveTrade

WhathadbegunasuncertainvoyagescametohavelastingconsequencesforEurope,theAmericasand

Africa.

Fromthefifteenthcentury,Europeanmaritimeprojectsproducedknowledgeofcontinuoussea passages

fromoceantoocean.Beforethis,mostofthesepassageshadbeenunknowntoEuropeans.Somewerenot

knowntoanyone.NoshiphadpenetratedtheCaribbeanortheAmericas.TheSouthAtlanticwaswholly

unexplored;nosea-goingshiphadeverentereditswaters,muchlesscrossedit,orsailedfromittothe

Pacific or the Indian Ocean. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, all these feats were

accomplished.

For Europe, the‘discovery’ of the Americashad consequencesfor others besides the initial voyagers.

The influx of gold and silver helped further expansion of international trade and industrialisation.

Between1560and1600,ahundredshipseachyearcarriedsilverfromSouthAmericanminestoSpain.

ButitwasnotSpainandPortugalthatbenefited.Theydidnotinvesttheirhugeincomeinfurthertrade,or

inbuildingupamerchantnavy.Instead,itwasthecountriesborderingtheAtlantic,particularlyEngland,

France, Belgium and Holland, that took advantage of the ‘discoveries’. Their merchants formed joint-

stockcompaniesandsentouttradingexpeditions,establishedcoloniesandintroducedEuropeanstothe

productsoftheNewWorld,includingtobacco,potatoes,cane-sugar,cacaoandrubber.

Europealsobecamefamiliar withnewcropsfromAmerica,notablypotatoesandchillies.Thesewere

thentakenbyEuropeanstoothercountrieslikeIndia.

ForthenativepeopleoftheAmericas,theimmediateconsequenceswerethephysicaldecimationoflocal

populations,thedestructionoftheirwayoflifeandtheirenslavementinmines,plantationsandmills.

Estimatesindicatethatpre-conquestMexicohadapopulationofbetween30and37.5million,theAndean

regionasimilarnumberwhileCentralAmericahadbetween10and13million.Thenativesontheeveof

the arrival of the Europeans totalled 70 million. A century and a half later, they had reduced to 3.5

million.Warfareanddiseasewereprimarilyresponsibleforthis.

Thesuddendestructionofthetwomajorcivilisations–thoseoftheAztecsandtheIncas–inAmerica

highlightsthecontrastsbetweenthetwoculturesincombat.BothwiththeAztecsandtheIncas,thenature

of warfare played a crucial role in terrorising local inhabitants psychologically and physically. The

contest also revealedafundamental difference invalues. The Spanish avarice for gold and silver was

incomprehensibletothenatives.

Thecapitalistsystemofproductionisoneinwhichthemeansofproductionanddistributionareownedby

individualsorcorporatesandwherecompetitorsparticipateinafreemarket.



SketchofatypicalSpanishtownshipinSouthAmerica.

Theenslavementofthepopulationwasasharpreminderofthebrutalityoftheencounter.Slaverywasnot

anewidea,buttheSouthAmericanexperiencewasnewinthatitaccompaniedtheemergingcapitalist

system of production. Working conditions were horrific, but the Spanish regarded the exploitation as

essentialtotheireconomicgain.

ThesilverminesinPerubegantofunctioninthe1550s,andthemonkDominigodeSantoTomasreportedtotheCounciloftheIndiesthat

thePotosiwasamouthofhellwhichswallowedIndiansbythethousandseveryyearandthatgreedymineownerstreatedthemlikestray

animals.

In1601,PhilipIIofSpainpubliclybannedforcedlabour,butmadearrangementsbyasecretdecreefor

itscontinuation.Thingscametoaheadwiththelawof1609,whichgavefullfreedomtothelocalpeople,

Christian and non-Christian alike. The European settlers were enraged, and within two years they had

forcedthekingtorevokethislawandtopermitenslavementonceagain.

As new economic activities began – cattle farming on lands cleared of forests, and mining after the

discoveryofgoldin1700 –thedemandforcheap labourcontinued. It was clearthatthelocalpeople

would resist enslavement. The alternative was to turn to Africa. Between the 1550s and 1880s (when

slavery was abolished in Brazil) over 3,600,000 African slaves were imported into Brazil. This was

almost half the total number of African slaves imported into the Americas. In 1750, there were

individualswhoownedasmanyasathousandslaves.

Map3:Africa,indicatingregionsfromwhereslaveswerecaptured

From the early debates in the 1780s on abolishing slavery, there were those who argued that slavery

existedinAfricapriortotheentryoftheEuropeans,indeedslavesformedthebulkofthelabour-forcein

thestatesbeingformedinAfricafromthefifteenthcentury.TheyalsopointedoutthatEuropeantraders

werehelpedbyAfricanswhohelpedcaptureyoungmenandwomentobesoldasslaves,inreturnfor

cropsimportedfromSouthAmerica(maize,maniocandcassava,whichbecametheirstaplefoods).In

his autobiography (1789), the freed  slave Olaudah Equiano replied to these arguments by saying

thatslavesinAfricaweretreatedaspartofthefamily.Inthe1940s,inhisbookCapitalismandSlavery,

Eric Williams was one of the first modern historians to initiate a reassessment of the suffering

experiencedbyAfricanslaves.

Epilogue

In the earlynineteenth century,European settlers intheSouthAmericancoloniesweretorebelagainst

Spain and Portugal and become independent countries, just as in 1776 the thirteen North American

coloniesrebelledagainstBritainandformedtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

SouthAmericatodayisalsocalled‘LatinAmerica’.ThisisbecauseSpanishandPortuguese,twoofthe

main languages of the continent, are part of the Latin family of languages. The inhabitants are mostly

native European (called Creole), European, and African by origin. Most of them are Catholics. Their

culturehasmanyelementsofnativetraditionsmixedwithEuropeanones.



Exercises

Answerinbrief

1.ComparethecivilisationoftheAztecswiththatoftheMesopotamians.

2.WhatwerethenewdevelopmentshelpingEuropeannavigationinthefifteenthcentury?

3. Give reasons for Spain and Portugal being the first in the fifteenth century to venture across the

Atlantic.

4.WhatnewfooditemsweretransmittedfromSouthAmericatotherestoftheworld?



Answerinashortessay

5.WriteanaccountofthejourneyofanAfricanboyofseventeencapturedandtakentoBrazilasaslave.

6.Howdidthe‘discovery’ofSouthAmericaleadtothedevelopmentofEuropeancolonialism?